Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems (3^rd Ed.)

Join the energy revolution?this comprehensive resource offers quantitative and practical approaches for designing a sustainable, 21st-century electricity system, covering renewable generation technologies, conventional power plants, energy efficiency, storage, and microgrids.

Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems dives into the fundamentals of modern electricity systems, introducing key technologies, economic and environmental impacts, and practical considerations for energy and climate professionals. The book explains the science and engineering underlying renewable energy?including solar, wind, and hydropower?along with an expanded set of key energy technologies such as fuel cells, batteries, and hydrogen. This updated edition prepares readers to participate in the world?s ongoing efforts to decarbonize the electricity sector and move toward a more sustainable future.

The book covers foundational knowledge of electric power, up through current developments and future prospects for renewable energy. The update significantly expands core content to address topics such as energy efficiency, smart grids, energy storage, and microgrids. It reframes energy as an integral factor in urban development and highlights forward-looking strategies to decarbonize the built environment. The text draws on a multi-scalar approach that ranges from utility-scale to building-scale to assess energy systems, and further considers centralized vs. distributed system architecture. The authors integrate perspectives from engineering professionals across different sectors, incorporating relevant insights from applied projects, with an eye toward implementing energy systems in the real world. Given the textbook?s broad reach, this edition situates energy development in an international context and provides examples relevant to a global audience.

• An essential resource for engineers and other practitioners working in climate and energy, offering cutting-edge frameworks and quantitative approaches to energy system design.
• Early chapters develop the skills and knowledge necessary for students and professionals entering the clean energy field. Later chapters offer an excellent bridge to prepare advanced students for further study in power engineering, or who intend to pursue policy or economic analysis.
• Step-by-step explanations of quantitative analysis are supplemented with additional practice problems to encourage self-instruction or complement classroom use.
• Accessible explanations provide planners and policymakers with fundamental technical understanding of energy systems.
• Combines pure technical analysis with economic and environmental considerations, and explores the link between energy, carbon, and new digital technologies, to provide a more comprehensive approach to energy education.

As the world undergoes a transformation in energy and electricity, Renewable and Efficient Electric Power Systems is an indispensable text for students of energy, environment, and climate, as well as for practitioners seeking to refresh their understanding of renewable energy systems.

About the Authors xv

1 The US Electric Power Industry 1

1.1 Electromagnetism: The Technology Behind Electric Power 2

1.2 The Early Battle Between Edison and Westinghouse 3

1.3 The Regulatory Side of Electric Utilities 5

1.3.1 The Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935 6

1.3.2 The Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 7

1.3.3 Utilities and Nonutility Generators 8

1.3.4 Opening the Grid to NUGs 9

1.3.5 The Emergence of Competitive Markets 11

1.4 Electricity Infrastructure: The Grid 15

1.4.1 The North American Electricity Grid 17

1.4.2 Balancing Electricity Supply and Demand 18

1.4.3 Grid Stability 23

1.4.4 Industry Statistics 27

1.5 Electric Power Infrastructure: Generation 32

1.5.1 Basic Steam Power Plants 33

1.5.2 Coal-Fired Steam Power Plants 34

1.5.3 Gas Turbines 38

1.5.4 Combined-Cycle Power Plants 39

1.5.5 Integrated Gasification Combined-Cycle Power Plants (IGCC) 40

1.5.6 Nuclear Power 42

1.6 Financial Aspects of Conventional Power Plants 46

1.6.1 Annualized Fixed Costs 46

1.6.2 The Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) 48

1.6.3 Screening Curves 51

1.6.4 Load Duration Curves 52

1.6.5 Including the Impact of Carbon Costs and Other Externalities 56

1.7 Summary 58

Problems 58

References 63

2 Basic Electric and Magnetic Circuits 69

2.1 Introduction to Electric Circuits 69

2.2 Definitions of Key Electrical Quantities 70

2.2.1 Charge 70

2.2.2 Current 71

2.2.3 Kirchhoff’s Current Law 73

2.2.4 Voltage 74

2.2.5 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law 75

2.2.6 Power 76

2.2.7 Energy 76

2.2.8 Summary of Principal Electrical Quantities 77

2.3 Idealized Voltage and Current Sources 77

2.3.1 Ideal Voltage Source 78

2.3.2 Ideal Current Source 79

2.4 Electrical Resistance 79

2.4.1 Ohm’s Law 79

2.4.2 Resistors in Series 80

2.4.3 Resistors in Parallel 81

2.4.4 The Voltage Divider 83

2.4.5 Wire Resistance 85

2.5 Capacitance 90

2.6 Magnetic Circuits 93

2.6.1 Electromagnetism 93

2.6.2 Magnetic Circuits 94

2.7 Inductance 98

2.7.1 Physics of Inductors 98

2.7.2 Circuit Relationships for Inductors 100

2.8 Transformers 104

2.8.1 Ideal Transformers 104

2.8.2 Magnetization Losses 108

Problems 112

3 Fundamentals of Electric Power 117

3.1 Effective Values of Voltage and Current 117

3.2 Idealized Components Subjected to Sinusoidal Voltages 121

3.2.1 Ideal Resistors 121

3.2.2 Idealized Capacitors 123

3.2.3 Idealized Inductors 126

3.2.4 Impedance 128

3.3 Power Factor 132

3.3.1 The Power Triangle 134

3.3.2 Power Factor Correction 135

3.4 Three-Wire, Single-Phase Residential Wiring 138

3.5 Three-Phase Systems 141

3.5.1 Balanced, Wye-Connected Systems 141

3.5.2 Delta-Connected, Three-Phase Systems 148

3.6 Synchronous Generators 149

3.6.1 The Rotating Magnetic Field 151

3.6.2 Phasor Model of a Synchronous Generator 153

3.7 Transmission and Distribution 155

3.7.1 Resistive Losses in T&D 156

3.7.2 Importance of Reactive Power Q in T&D Systems 159

3.7.3 Impacts of P and Q on Line Voltage Drop 161

3.8 Power Quality 164

3.8.1 Introduction to Harmonics 165

3.8.2 Total Harmonic Distortion 169

3.8.3 Harmonics and Overloaded Neutrals 169

3.8.4 Harmonics in Transformers 172

3.9 Power Electronics 173

3.9.1 AC-to-DC Conversion 173

3.9.2 DC-to-DC Conversions 176

3.9.3 DC-to-AC Inverters 182

3.10 Back-To-Back Voltage-Source Converter 184

Problems 185

References 192

4 The Solar Resource 193

4.1 The Solar Spectrum 193

4.2 The Earth’s Orbit 197

4.3 Altitude Angle of the Sun at Solar Noon 200

4.4 Solar Position at Any Time of Day 203

4.5 Sun Path Diagrams for Shading Analysis 207

4.6 Shading Analysis Using Shadow Diagrams 210

4.7 Solar Time and Civil (Clock) Time 213

4.8 Sunrise and Sunset 216

4.9 Clear-Sky Direct-Beam Radiation 219

4.10 Total Clear-Sky Insolation on a Collecting Surface 223

4.10.1 Direct Beam Radiation 223

4.10.2 Diffuse Radiation 225

4.10.3 Reflected Radiation 227

4.10.4 Tracking Systems 229

4.11 Monthly Clear-Sky Insolation 237

4.12 Solar Radiation Measurements 240

4.13 Solar Insolation Under Normal Skies 245

4.13.1 TMY Insolation on a Solar Collector 245

4.14 Average Monthly Insolation 248

Problems 256

References 261

5 Photovoltaic Materials and Electrical Characteristics 263

5.1 Introduction 263

5.2 Basic Semiconductor Physics 266

5.2.1 The Band-Gap Energy 267

5.2.2 Band-Gap Impact on PV Efficiency 271

5.2.3 The p–n Junction 274

5.2.4 The p–n Junction Diode 277

5.2.5 A Generic PV Cell 279

5.3 PV Materials 280

5.3.1 Crystalline Silicon 280

5.3.2 Amorphous Silicon 284

5.3.3 Gallium Arsenide 286

5.3.4 Cadmium Telluride 287

5.3.5 Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) 288

5.3.6 Emerging PVs 289

5.4 Equivalent Circuits for PV Cells 290

5.4.1 The Simplest Equivalent Circuit 291

5.4.2 A More Accurate Equivalent Circuit for a PV Cell 294

5.5 From Cells to Modules to Arrays 298

5.5.1 From Cells to a Module 299

5.5.2 From Modules to Arrays 301

5.6 The PV I–V Curve Under Standard Test Conditions 302

5.7 Impacts of Temperature and Insolation on I–V Curves 305

5.8 Shading Impacts on I–V Curves 307

5.8.1 Physics of Shading 308

5.8.2 Bypass Diodes and Blocking Diodes for Shade Mitigation 312

5.9 Maximum Power Point Trackers 315

5.9.1 The Buck–Boost Converter 315

5.9.2 MPPT Controllers 319

Problems 322

References 328

6 Photovoltaic Systems 331

6.1 Introduction 331

6.2 Physical Components in a Behind-the-Meter, Grid-Connected System 331

6.2.1 Microinverters 334

6.2.2 Using Space Strategically: Securing Solar Panels with Racking and Mounting Systems 336

6.3 Predicting Performance 339

6.3.1 Non Temperature-Related PV Power Derating 340

6.3.2 Temperature-Related PV Derating 345

6.3.3 The “Peak-Hours” Approach to Estimate PV Performance 347

6.3.4 Normalized Energy Production Estimates 350

6.3.5 Capacity Factors for PV Grid-Connected Systems 352

6.3.6 Practical Design Considerations 353

6.3.7 Codes and Requirements 356

6.4 PV System Economics 357

6.4.1 Net Metering and Feed-in Tariffs 357

6.4.2 PV System Costs 359

6.4.3 Amortizing Costs 362

6.4.4 Cash Flow Analysis 367

6.4.5 Residential Rate Structures 369

6.4.6 Commercial and Industrial Rate Structures 372

6.4.7 Economics of PV Systems on Commercial Buildings 374

6.4.8 Power Purchase Agreements 375

6.4.9 Utility-Scale PVs 376

6.5 Summary of System Design for Solar PV on Buildings 378

Problems 380

References 386

7 Wind Power Systems 389

7.1 Historical Development of Wind Power 389

7.2 Wind Turbine Technology: Rotors 395

7.3 Wind Turbine Technology: Generators 398

7.3.1 Fixed-Speed Synchronous Generators 399

7.3.2 The Squirrel-Cage Induction Generator 400

7.3.3 The Doubly Fed Induction Generator 402

7.3.4 Variable-Speed Synchronous Generators 403

7.4 Power in the Wind 405

7.4.1 Temperature and Altitude Correction for Air Density 407

7.4.2 Impact of Tower Height 410

7.5 Wind Turbine Power Curves 413

7.5.1 The Betz Limit 413

7.5.2 Idealized Wind Turbine Power Curve 417

7.5.3 Real Power Curves 418

7.5.4 IEC Wind Turbine Classifications 422

7.5.5 Measuring the Wind 423

7.6 Average Power in the Wind 424

7.6.1 Discrete Wind Histogram 424

7.6.2 Wind Power Probability Density Functions 428

7.6.3 Weibull and Rayleigh Statistics 429

7.6.4 Average Power in the Wind with Rayleigh Statistics 431

7.6.5 Wind Power Maps and Classifications 433

7.7 Estimating Wind Turbine Energy Production 435

7.7.1 Wind Speed Cumulative Distribution Function 435

7.7.2 Using Real Power Curves with Weibull Statistics 439

7.7.3 A Simple Way to Estimate Capacity Factors 445

7.8 Wind Farms 450

7.8.1 Onshore Wind Power Potential 450

7.8.2 Curtailment and Transmission 458

7.8.3 Offshore Wind Farms 458

7.9 Wind Turbine Economics 465

7.9.1 Annualized Cost of Electricity from Wind Turbines 465

7.9.2 LCOE with MACRS and PTC 468

7.9.3 Debt and Equity Financing of Wind Energy Systems 473

7.10 Environmental Impacts of Wind Turbines 473

Problems 476

References 481

8 More Renewable Energy Systems for Electricity Generation 487

8.1 Introduction 487

8.2 Concentrating Solar–Thermal Power Systems 487

8.2.1 Carnot Efficiency for Heat Engines 488

8.2.2 Direct Normal Irradiance (DNI) 491

8.2.3 Condenser Cooling for CSP Systems 494

8.2.4 Thermal Energy Storage for CSP 495

8.2.5 Linear Parabolic Trough Systems 499

8.2.6 Solar Central Receiver Systems (Power Towers) 501

8.2.7 Linear Fresnel Reflectors (LFRs) 504

8.2.8 Solar Dish-Stirling (Dish/Engine) Power Systems 505

8.2.9 Summarizing CSP Technologies 509

8.3 Wave Energy Conversion 512

8.3.1 The Wave Energy Resource 512

8.3.2 Wave Energy Conversion Technology 517

8.3.3 Predicting WEC Performance 518

8.3.4 A Future for Wave Energy 520

8.4 Tidal Power 521

8.4.1 Tidal Current Power 522

8.4.2 Origin of the Tides 523

8.4.3 Estimating In-stream Tidal Power 525

8.4.4 Estimating Tidal Energy Delivered 528

8.5 Hydroelectric Power 531

8.5.1 Hydropower Configurations 532

8.5.2 Basic Principles 534

8.5.3 Turbines 536

8.5.4 Accounting for Losses 538

8.5.5 Measuring Flow for a Micro-Hydro System 541

8.5.6 Electrical Aspects of Small-scale Hydro 542

8.6 Pumped Storage Hydro 543

8.7 Biomass for Electricity 546

8.7.1 Is Biomass a Carbon-Neutral Resource? 547

8.7.2 Fuel Types for Electricity Generation 548

8.8 Geothermal Power 551

8.8.1 Resource Sites 552

8.8.2 Energy Extraction 553

8.8.3 Summary of Geothermal Power 554

Problems 556

References 560

9 Mainstreaming Energy Efficiency as a Renewable Resource 569

9.1 Introduction 569

9.2 Efficiency Versus Conservation 570

9.3 Energy Efficiency at Different Scales 571

9.3.1 Energy Efficiency of Countries 571

9.3.2 Energy Efficiency of Companies 572

9.3.3 Energy Efficiency of Cities and Buildings 572

9.3.4 Energy Efficiency of Equipment 573

9.4 Benefits of Energy Efficiency 575

9.5 Building Energy Efficiency 576

9.5.1 Building Design: Passive and Active Strategies 576

9.5.2 Efficient Operations: Commissioning, Monitoring, and Energy Management Systems 585

9.5.3 Integrating Renewable Energy 585

9.6 Policy and Regulation for Energy-Efficient Buildings 586

9.7 Smart Grid 588

9.7.1 Automating Distribution Systems 589

9.7.2 Volt/VAR Optimization 589

9.7.3 Better Control of the Grid 591

9.7.4 Advanced Metering Infrastructure (AMI) 593

9.7.5 Demand Response (DR) 594

9.7.6 Dynamic Dispatch 596

9.8 Electricity Storage 598

9.9 Establishing Demand-Side Management Programs 598

9.9.1 Disincentives Caused by Traditional Ratemaking 600

9.9.2 Necessary Conditions for Successful DSM Programs 601

9.9.3 Cost-Effectiveness Measures of DSM 603

9.10 Economics of Energy Efficiency 605

9.10.1 Energy Conservation Supply Curves 605

9.11 Reducing Carbon: Greenhouse Gas Abatement Curves 608

9.12 District Heating and District Cooling 610

9.13 Combined Heat and Power Systems for Buildings and Districts 612

9.13.1 CHP Efficiency Measures 612

9.13.2 Economics of Combined Heat and Power (CHP) 614

9.14 Technologies Used in CHP/Cogeneration Plants 617

9.14.1 HHV and LHV 617

9.14.2 Microturbines 619

9.14.3 Reciprocating Internal Combustion Engines 621

9.15 Data and Energy 623

9.15.1 Building Operations 624

9.15.2 Multi-Building Operations and Planning 625

9.15.3 City Climate Action 625

9.15.4 Data Centers and the IT Sector 626

Problems 629

References 633

10 Energy Storage: Batteries, Fuel Cells, and Hydrogen 639

10.1 Ensuring Resource Adequacy 640

10.2 The Need for Energy Storage 641

10.3 Battery Basics 642

10.4 Lithium-Ion Batteries 644

10.5 Emerging Battery Technologies 646

10.5.1 Silicon Anodes 646

10.5.2 Lithium-Metal Batteries 647

10.5.3 Solid-State Batteries 648

10.6 Beyond the Cell: Producing Battery Modules and Packs 648

10.6.1 Thermal Safety 651

10.7 The Big Picture: Diverse Applications for Li-Ion Batteries 652

10.8 Lead–Acid Batteries 654

10.8.1 Basics of Lead–Acid Batteries 654

10.8.2 Battery Chemistry of Lead–Acid Batteries 656

10.9 Battery Storage Capacity 6.5.7 659

10.10 Coulombic Efficiency Instead of Energy Efficiency 663

10.11 Battery Systems for Buildings 664

10.11.1 Commercial Buildings 666

10.11.2 Operating to Maximize Cost Savings and Financial Benefits 668

10.11.3 Incentives and Regulations for Energy Storage 669

10.12 Carbon Savings 670

10.13 Utility-Scale Batteries 674

10.13.1 Flow Batteries 678

10.13.2 Iron–Air Batteries for Long-Duration Energy Storage 681

10.13.3 Sodium–Sulfur Batteries 682

10.14 Dynamic Dispatch and Grid Storage with Electric Vehicle Fleets 682

10.15 Hydrogen, Fuel Cells, Electrolyzers, and Prospects for Long-Term Storage 686

10.15.1 Fuel Cells 687

10.15.2 Historical Development 688

10.15.3 Basic Operation of Fuel Cells 688

10.15.4 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics: Enthalpy 690

10.15.5 Entropy and the Theoretical Efficiency of Fuel Cells 694

10.15.6 Gibbs Free Energy and Fuel Cell Efficiency 697

10.15.7 Electrical Output of an Ideal Cell 698

10.15.8 Electrical Characteristics of Real Fuel Cells 699

10.15.9 Types of Fuel Cells 701

10.15.10 Producing Hydrogen 706

Problems 711

References 716

11 Microgrids 725

11.1 Introduction 725

11.2 Microgrids for Local Resilience 726

11.3 Microgrids for Off-Grid Applications 727

11.4 Off-Grid Solar PV with Battery Systems 728

11.4.1 Stand-Alone System Components 729

11.4.2 Self-Regulating Modules 731

11.4.3 Estimating the Load 733

11.4.4 Initial Array Sizing Assuming an MPP Tracker 737

11.4.5 Battery Sizing for Stand-Alone Systems 738

11.4.6 Sizing an Array with No MPP Tracker 742

11.4.7 A Simple Design Template 745

11.4.8 Stand-Alone PV System Costs 749

11.5 PV-Powered Water Pumping 751

11.5.1 The Electrical Side of the System 753

11.5.2 Hydraulic Pump Curves 754

11.5.3 Hydraulic System Curves 758

11.5.4 Putting It All Together to Predict Performance 761

11.6 Distributed Energy Resources 764

Problems 764

References 768

A Energy Economics Tutorial 771

A.1 Simple Payback Period 771

A.2 Initial (Simple) Rate of Return 772

A.3 The Time Value of Money and Net Present Value 772

A.4 Internal Rate of Return 775

A.5 Net Present Value with Fuel Escalation 777

A.6 IRR with Fuel Escalation 779

A.7 Annualizing the Investment 780

A.8 Levelized Cost of Electricity 781

A.9 Cash-Flow Analysis 785

Index 787

Gilbert M. Masters received his PhD in Electrical Engineering from Stanford University. He is Professor Emeritus in the Atmosphere/Energy Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Stanford, where he has taught courses for over three decades on energy and the environment.

Kevin F. Hsu is a AAAS Science & Technology Policy Fellow, with international experience in energy and climate planning. He researches infrastructure and climate resilience at MIT, and has taught sustainability and design classes at Stanford University.