Biodeterioration of stone surfaces lichens and biofilms as weathering agents of rocks and cultural heritage

This is a timely volume in view of the considerable interest currently shown in the preservation of our cultural heritage and the extensive and growing literature on the subject. Unfortunately, the latter is to be found in a wide variety of published sources, some aimed at a very specific readership. The present volume draws together a spectrum of biodeterioration work from across the world to provide an overview of the materials examined and the methodologies employed to elucidate the nature of the problems, as well as an extensive and current bibliographical resource on lichen biodeterioration.

Generally, we do not think of rock surfaces as particularly conducive to the growth and development of living things. Occasionally, we may encounter grasses or forbs or even more rarely a small shrub or stunted tree growing from a crack in a large boulder or rock wall, but for most people, rock is perceived as dry, sterile, impenetrable, and generally uninviting. However, to the experienced eye rock surfaces are often teeming with life ? lichens, bryophytes, a host of small invertebrate animals, as well as a vast array of microscopic organisms including bacteria, cyanobacteria, algae and non-lichenized fungi. The longevity and structural stability of most rocks superficially suggest that rock surface inhabitants are benign, however, slowly and steadily all rock dwelling organisms contribute to the relentless decomposition of rock surfaces ? augmented by the natural physical forces associated with changing seasons, weather patterns, and in some localized settings the caustic effects of air pollution. Rock dwelling communities vary in complexity and composition depending on the specific structural and chemical features of the rock. Even human manipulated or manufactured stone supports to some degree a living community ? and herein are found the real issues and concerns related to biodeterioration of rock substrata. In a natural setting biodecomposition of rock is accepted as normal and even desirable ? integral to the process of soil development, however, in the human environment biodeterioration of monuments, buildings, artwork, statues and gravestones is counted as a serious problem. Even in natural settings, culturally significant prehistoric and historic rock art is subject to the same processes of biodeterioration.

In this volume the editors have compiled current papers from leading experts dealing with various issues related to biodeterioration of rock substrata. Topics range from biodeterioration effects on prehistoric rock art as well as culturally significant, historic rock structures. This is the first treatment of the subject of biodeterioration that includes a careful consideration of the role of related disciplines including geology, archaeology, crystallography, cultural conservation and resource management. This combination of disciplines makes this book valuable not only as a solid scientific treatise but equally important as a serious resource for evaluating both impact processes and preservation options related to biodeterioration of culturally significant rock substrata.

Dedication *

Contributing Authors *

Preface *ii

Acknowledgments xv

Caption for Image on Book Cover xvii

Chapter 1 Biodeterioration of Rock Substrata by Lichens: Progress and Problems Larry L. St. Clair and Mark R.D. Seaward 1

Chapter 2 Lichens as Subversive Agents of Biodeterioration Mark R.D. Seaward 9

Chapter 3 Limestone Stabilization Studies at a Maya Site in Belize William S. Ginell and Rakesh Kumar 19

Chapter 4 Lichens and the Biodeterioration of Stonework: The Italian Experience Rosanna Piervittori 45

Chapter 5 Deteriorative Effects of Lichens on Granite Monuments Benita Silva and B. Prieto 69

Chapter 6 Microbial Biofilms on Carbonate Rocks from a Quarry and Monuments in Novelda (Alicanta, Spain) Carmen Ascaso, M.A. Garcia Del Cura, and Asuncion De Los Rios 79

Chapter 7 Lichens on Wyoming Sandstone: Do They Cause Damage? Giacomo Chiari and Roberto Cossio 99

Chapter 8 Lichen Encroachment onto Rock Art in Eastern Wyoming: Summary of Conservation Problems and Prospects for Treatment Constance S. Silver and Richard Wolbers 115

Chapter 9 Lichen Biodeterioration at Inscription Rock, El Morro National Monument, Ramah, New Mexico, USA Kathryn B. Knight, Larry L. St. Clair, and John S. Gardner 129

Chapter 10 Lichens of Different Mortars at Archaeological Sites in Southern Spain: An Overview X. Arino and C. Saiz-Jimenez 165

Chapter 11 Observations on Lichens Growing on Artifacts in the Indian Subcontinent S. Saxena, D.K Upreti, Ajay Singh, and K.P. Singh 181

Chapter 12 Biodeterioration of Prehistoric Rock Art and issues in Site Preservation Alice M. Tratebas 195

Chapter 13 Raman Spectroscopy of Rock Biodeterioration by the Lichen Lecidea tessellata Flörke in an Arid Desert Environment, Utah, USA Howell G.M. Edwards, Susana E. Jorge Villar, Mark R.D. Seaward, and Larry L. St. Clair 229

Chapter 14 Lichens and Monuments: An Analytical Bibliography Rosanna Piervittori, Ornella Salvadori, and Mark R.D. Seaward 241

Index 283