Immunology of Human Infection, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1981
Part I: Bacteria, Mycoplasmae, Chlamydiae, and Fungi
Comprehensive Immunology Series, Vol. 8

When we were first approached by the senior editors of this series to edit a book on interactions between the host and infectious agents, we accepted this offer as an exciting challenge. The only condition, readily agreed upon, was that such a book should focus on the immunology of infections in humans. Our reasons, if not biases, were severalfold. We sensed that the fields of microbiology and im­ munology, which had diverged as each was focusing on its individual search, were coming together. In agreement with the opinions expressed by Dr. Richard Krause in the Introduction, we strongly believed that the development of the immune system evolved in response to infectious agents and that the evolution of these agents was influenced in turn by the character of the host's responses. An inten­ sive examination of the multitude of primitive or more recently developed host defense mechanisms to determine their relative contribution to man's resistance to a given infectious agent appeared to us to be of crucial basic and practical interest. Many immune mechanisms studied in animals were being explored in humans and it appeared timely to focus particularly on what was known about man's resistance to infectious agents, correlating this information with lessons learned from relevant experiments in animal models.

Bacteria.- 1 Bacterial Immunity.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Outline.- 1.2. Immune Responses to Bacteria.- 1.3. Routes and Sites of Infection.- 1.4. Measurement of Resistance to Infection.- 2. Bacterial Attack.- 2.1. Bacterial Growth.- 2.2. Bacterial Structure and Components.- 2.3. Impedins.- 2.4. Bacterial Adjuvants.- 2.5. Cross-Reacting Antigens.- 3. Surface Infections.- 3.1. Introduction.- 3.2. Toxigenic Bacteria.- 3.3. Bacterial Adhesion.- 3.4. Bacterial Invasion.- 4. Local Infections.- 4.1. Inflammation.- 4.2. Opsonins.- 5. Systemic Infections.- 5.1. Introduction.- 5.2. Bactericidal Action of Complement.- 5.3. Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 5.4. Spectrum of Responses to Infection.- 5.5. Ribosomal Immunity.- 6. Conclusion.- References.- 2 Immunology of Streptococcus pneumoniae.- 1. Introduction.- 2 Immunochemistry.- 2.1. Basic Chemistry.- 2.2. Immunochemical Analysis of Polysaccharide Antigens.- 2.3. Cross-Reactions between Microbial Polysaccharides.- 2.4. Immunogenicity of Pneumococcal Polysaccharides.- 3. Antibody-Mediated Immunity to Streptococcus pneumoniae.- 3.1. Basic Antibody Response.- 3.2. Genetic Control of Antibody Response.- 3.3. Tolerance to Polysaccharide Antigens.- 4. Cell-Mediated Immunity to Streptococcus pneumoniae.- 4.1. Morphological Alterations following Antigenic Challenge.- 4.2. Delayed Hypersensitivity.- 4.3. Stimulation of T Cells by Pneumococcal Antigens.- 5. Phagocytosis of Streptococcus pneumoniae.- 6. Complement and Streptococcus pneumoniae.- 7. Increased Susceptibility to Pneumococcal Infection.- 7.1. Increased Susceptibility to Pneumococcal Infection in Infants.- 7.2. Increased Susceptibility to Pneumococcal Infection in Old Age.- 7.3. Increased Susceptibility to Pneumococcal Infection in Immunodeficiency Disorders.- 7.4. Increased Susceptibility to Pneumococcal Infection in Patients with Nephrotic Syndrome and Cirrhosis.- 7.5. Increased Susceptibility to Pneumococcal Infection in Anatomical and Functional Asplenia.- 8. Immunodiagnosis of Pneumococcal Infection.- 8.1. Identification of Type-Specific Pneumococci.- 8.2. Detection of Pneumococcal Antigens in Body Fluids.- 8.3. Determination of Antibody Response.- 9. Immunoprevention and Treatment.- 9.1. Passive Antibody.- 9.2. Active Immunization.- References.- 3 Immunology of Streptococci.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Evolution, Genetics, and Taxonomic Relationships of Streptococci.- 3. Host Ranges of Streptococcal Infection.- 4. Host Genetics of Streptococcal Infection.- 5. Pathogenesis of Streptococcal Infection.- 6. Humoral Immune Responses.- 7. Cellular Immune Responses.- 8. Pathogenesis of Nonsuppurative Complications of Streptococcal Infection (Acute Rheumatic Fever and Acute Glomerulonephritis).- 9. Pathogenesis of Bacterial Endocarditis.- 10. Special Hosts.- 11. Group B Streptococcal Infections.- 12. Immunotherapy and Immunoprevention.- References.- 4 Immunology of Staphylococci.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Armament of Staphylococcus aureus.- 2.1. Cell Wall.- 2.2. Extracellular Products of Staphylococcus aureus.- 2.3. Genotypic and Phenotypic Variability.- 3. Armament of the Host.- 3.1. Phagocytic Defense against Staphylococci.- 3.2. Defects in Phagocytic Defense.- 3.3. Acquired Immunity to Staphylococci.- 3.4. Other Factors Influencing Host Resistance to Staphylococcus.- 4. Immunodiagnosis.- 5. Conclusion.- References.- 5 Immunology of Haemophilus influenzae Infections.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Microbiology.- 2.1. Biosynthesis.- 2.2. Immunochemistry.- 3. Host-Microbe Interactions.- 3.1. Surface and Invasive Infections.- 3.2. Epithelial Attachment.- 3.3. Ciliostasis.- 3.4. Viral-Bacterial Synergism.- 3.5. Local Antibody.- 3.6. Serum Antibody to Capsular Antigen.- 3.7. Serum Antibody to Somatic Antigen.- 3.8. Complement Components.- 3.9. Phagocytosis.- 4. Pathogenesis.- 5. Immunodiagnosis.- 5.1. Detection of Antigen.- 5.2. Detection of Antibody.- 6. Immunization.- 6.1. Passive.- 6.2. Active.- 7. Conclusion.- References.- 6 Immunology of Neisseria meningitidis.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Spectrum of Infection.- 1.2. Epidemiology.- 2. Serological Classification.- 3. Factors Contributing to Pathogenicity.- 4. The Immune Response in Man.- 4.1. Antibody Assays.- 4.2. Development of Natural Immunity.- 4.3. Evidence That Immunity is Antibody Mediated.- 4.4. Mechanisms of Killing Meningococci in Vivo.- 4.5. Infection in Special Hosts.- 5. Immunoprevention.- 5.1. Development of Groups A and C Meningoccal Polysaccharide Vaccines.- 5.2. Current Recommendations for Uses of Meningococcal A and C Vaccines.- 5.3. Future Goals of Immunoprophylaxis of Meningococcal Disease.- 6. Immunotherapy.- 7. Summary and Prospects.- References.- 7 Immunology of Bordetella pertussis.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Clinical Picture of Whooping Cough.- 1.2. Etiology.- 1.3. Characteristics of B. pertussis.- 2. Biological Effects of B. pertussis and Its Products.- 2.1. In Vivo Effects.- 2.2. In Vitro Effects.- 3. Pathogenesis of Whooping Cough.- 3.1. Establishment of the Infection.- 3.2. Induction of the Disease.- 3.3. Pathology and Immunology of Infection Resolution.- 4. Bacteriological and Serological Diagnosis.- 5. Immunization against Pertussis.- 5.1. Efficacy of Pertussis Vaccine.- 5.2. Toxicity of Pertussis Vaccine.- 5.3. Protective Component of Pertussis Vaccine.- References.- 8 Immunobiology of Diphtheria.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Diphtheria and Diphtheria Bacilli.- 3. Diphtherial Toxin.- 3.1. Toxin, a Corynebacterial Adenosine Diphosphoribosyl Transferase.- 3.2. Fixation of Toxin to Animal Cells.- 3.3. Antigenic Structure of Toxin.- 3.4. Toxoid as Formalinized Toxin.- 3.5. Toxoid, a Complex of Antigens.- 3.6. The Schick Test.- 3.7. The (Immunologic) Nonresponder to Diphtherial Toxin.- 4. Colonization by C. diphtheriae.- 4.1. Colonization in the Presence of Circulating “ Antitoxin”.- 4.2. Colonization in the Presence of Nasopharyngeal Pathology.- 4.3. Colonization in the Presence of Streptococci, Staphylococci, and Other Organisms.- 5. Antibacterial Immunity in Diphtheria.- 5.1. Serotypes and Infection with C. diphtheriae.- 5.2. Humoral and Delayed Hypersensitivity Responses to Corynebacterial Products Injected into the Guinea Pig.- 5.3. Adjuvant Action of C. diphtheriae.- 6. Infection in Experimental Animals as Related to Infection in Man.- 6.1. Experimental Infections in Guinea Pigs and Rabbits.- 6.2. Immunity to C. diphtheriae, Immunity to Diphtherial Toxin, and Carriage of C. diphtheriae in Humans.- 7. Diphtheria as a Medical Problem of Sporadic Occurrence.- 8. Methods of Immunization against Diphtheritic (Toxic) Death.- 8.1. Active Immunization with Diphtherial Toxoid.- 8.2. Passive Immunization, Antitoxin Therapy.- References.- 9 Immunity of Listeria monocytogenes.- 1. Listeria and Listeriosis.- 1.1. Listeria.- 1.2. Epidemiology.- 1.3. Listeriosis in Animals.- 1.4. Human Listeriosis.- 1.5. Diagnosis.- 1.6. Immunity and Vaccination.- 2. Rodent Listeriosis as a Model of Cell-Mediated Immunity to Infection.- 2.1. Immunity in Response to Infection.- 2.2. Macrophages as the Expressors of Immunity.- 2.3. Mobilization of Macrophages.- 2.4. Immunological Basis of Acquired Immunity.- 2.5. Thymus-Derived Lymphocytes as the Mediators of Immunity.- 2.6. Kinetics of Production of Mediator T Cells.- 2.7. Properties and Functions of Mediator T Cells.- 2.8. T-Cell Mediation of Macrophage Activation.- 2.9. Immunological Memory.- 2.10. Active Immunity and Immunological Memory.- 2.11. Delayed-Type Hypersensivity.- 3. Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 10 Immunology of Enterobacterial Infections.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Microbial Characteristics.- 2.1. Normal Flora Interactions.- 2.2. Antigenic Composition of Enterobacteriaceae.- 2.3. Factors Contributing to Invasiveness and Pathogenesis of Disease.- 3. Host Characteristics.- 4. Microbe-Host Interactions.- 4.1. Colonization vs. Disease.- 4.2. “Normal” Host Defense Mechanisms.- 4.3. Immune Response.- 5. Immunodiagnosis.- 5.1. Serum Antibody.- 5.2. Urinary Antibody.- 6. Immunoprevention.- 7. Immunotherapy.- References.- 11 Immunology of Enteric Pathogens: Salmonella, Shigella, and Escherichia coli.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. General.- 1.2. Known Pathogenic Mechanisms of Bacterial Enteric Pathogens.- 2. Host Nonspecific Defense Mechanisms.- 2.1. Gastric Acidity.- 2.2. Intestinal Motility.- 2.3. Normal Intestinal Flora.- 3. Microbe-Host Interactions.- 3.1. Local Mucosal Antibody.- 3.2. Phagocytes.- 3.3. Circulating Antibody Response.- 3.4. Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 3.5. Host-Parasite Interaction in Typhoid Fever.- 4. Immunodiagnosis.- 4.1. Immunodiagnosis of Salmonellae.- 4.2. Immunodiagnosis of Shigellae.- 4.3. Immunodiagnosis of E. coli Infections.- 5. Immunoprophylaxis.- 5.1. Vaccination against Typhoid and Paratyphoid Fever.- 5.2. Shigella Vaccines.- 5.3. E. coli Vaccines.- References.- 12 Immunology of Vibrio cholerae.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Cholera: Historical Aspects.- 3. Cholera Vaccines: Historical Aspects.- 4. Antigens of V. cholerae.- 4.1. Somatic Antigen(s).- 4.2. Protein Antigens.- 4.3. Ribosomal Preparations.- 4.4. Flagellar Antigens and “Adhesins”.- 4.5. Mucinase(s).- 4.6. Cholera Enterotoxin (Choleragen).- 5. Host Responses to V. cholerae Antigens.- 6. Mechanisms of Immunity against Cholera.- 7. Cholera Toxin as an Immune Modulator: Effects on Leukocytes, Lymphocytes, and Leukemic Cells.- 8. Prospects for the Future.- References.- 13 Immunology of Anaerobic Bacterial Infections.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Evolutionary and Historical Aspects.- 3. The Anaerobic Flora and the Host.- 4. Spectrum of and Host Factors Contributing to Anaerobic Bacterial Infections.- 5. Clostridial Infections.- 5.1. General Characteristics.- 5.2. Immunology of Tetanus.- 5.3. Immunology of Botulism.- 5.4. Immunology of Gas Gangrene.- 5.5. Other Immune Phenomena Related to Clostridium perfringens.- 6. Infections Due to Nonsporing Anaerobic Gram-Positive Rods.- 6.1. Immunology of Actinomycosis.- 6.2. Immunology of Propionibacteria Infections.- 7. Infections Due to Anaerobic Gram-Negative Rods.- 7.1. General Characteristics.- 7.2. Immunology of Bacteroides fragilis Infections.- 7.3. Immunology of Bacteroides melaninogenicus Infections.- 7.4. Immunology of Fusobacterium Infections.- 8. Infections Due to Anaerobic Gram-Positive Cocci.- 8.1. General Characteristics.- 8.2. Serology.- References.- 14 Immunology of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Bacteriology.- 3. Natural History of Tuberculosis.- 4. Bacterial Factors in Pathogenicity.- 5. Host Factors in Pathogenicity.- 5.1. Genetic Factors in Tuberculosis.- 5.2. Nongenetic Factors in Tuberculosis.- 5.3. Local and Systemic Responses of Tuberculosis.- 6. Immunodiagnosis of Tuberculosis.- 6.1. Serological Tests.- 6.2. Tuberculin Test.- 6.3. MIF and LT Tests.- 6.4. Diagnosis of Nontuberculous Mycobacterioses.- 6.5. Positive Tuberculin Test.- 6.6. Negative Tuberculin Test.- 7. Antituberculosis Immunization.- 7.1. Living BCG Vaccine.- 7.2. Vaccines Other Than Living BCG.- 8. Immunotherapy.- 8.1. Tuberculin.- 8.2. Transfer Factor.- References.- 15 Immunobiology of Leprosy.- 1. Introduction.- 2. The Bacillus, Mycobacterium leprae.- 3. Epidemiology and Host Factors in Leprosy.- 4. Immunopathological Spectrum of Leprosy.- 5. Inflammatory Response in Leprosy.- 6. Lymphocyte Function in Leprosy.- 6.1. M. Leprae-Specific Responses.- 6.2. Nonspecific Responses.- 7. Immunopathological Correlates of Disease Activity.- 7.1. Reversal Reactions.- 7.2. Erythema Nodosum Leprosum (ENL).- 7.3. Complications Attributed to Circulating Immune Complexes.- 7.4. Serological Disturbances.- 8. Immunotherapy.- References.- 16 Immunology of Syphilis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Treponematoses.- 2.1. Evolutionary Aspects.- 2.2. Host and Environmental Factors.- 2.3. Nonvenereal Treponematoses.- 2.4. Treatment.- 3. The Organism.- 3.1. Classification of Treponemes.- 3.2. Morphology.- 3.3. Multiplication and Metabolism.- 4. The Infection.- 4.1. Experimental Animals.- 4.2. Acquired Syphilis.- 5. Immune Response to Infection.- 5.1. Immunopathological Phenomena.- 5.2. Natural Resistance.- 5.3. Acquired Resistance.- 6. Immunodiagnosis.- 7. Immunoprevention.- 7.1. Passive Immunization.- 7.2. Active Immunization.- 8. Conclusion.- References.- Mycoplasmas.- 17 Immunology of Mycoplasma Infection.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Microbial Aspects of Mycoplasma Infection.- 2.1. Antigenicity.- 2.2. Pathogenicity.- 2.3. Toxicity.- 2.4. Interactions of Mycoplasmas and Other Microbial Flora in Man.- 3. Host Factors in Human Mycoplasma Infections.- 4. Microbe-Host Interactions.- 4.1. Host Response to Infection.- 4.2. Immunopathological Aspects of M. pneumoniae Infection.- 4.3. Immunological Implications of Reinfection with M. pneumoniae.- 5. Immunodiagnosis of Mycoplasma Infection.- 5.1. Serological Reactions to Mycoplasmas.- 5.2. Assessment of Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 5.3. Mycoplasma Species Identification.- 6. Immunoprophylaxis.- 6.1. Background of Vaccine Development Efforts.- 6.2. Present Status of M. pneumoniae Vaccines.- 7. Conclusions and Future Directions.- References.- Chlamydiae.- 18 Immunology of Chlamydial Infections.- 1. A Perspective on Chlamydial Diseases.- 2. Histopathology of Trachoma.- 3. Interactions between Chlamydiae and Host Cells.- 3.1. Binding and Phagocytosis of Chlamydiae by Host Cells in Vitro.- 3.2. Cytopathic and Other Modes of Infection in Vitro.- 3.3. Chlamydial Toxicity in Vivo.- 4. Chlamydial Antigens.- 4.1. Group-Specific Antigens.- 4.2. Species-Specific and Type-Specific Antigens.- 5. Cellular and Humoral Immunological Responses to Chlamydiae.- 5.1. Evidence of Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 5.2. Interferon.- 5.3. Complement-Fixing Antibodies.- 5.4. Antibodies (Possibly Non-CF) Neutralizing Chlamydial Infectivity or Toxicity.- 5.5. Agglutinating Antibodies.- 5.6. Antibodies Effecting or Inhibiting Hemagglutination.- 5.7. Precipitating Antibodies.- 5.8. Antibodies Reacting in Immunofluorescence Tests.- 6. Immunological Prevention of Chlamydial Infections.- 6.1. Field Trials of Vaccines.- 6.2. Speculations on the Future of Vaccines.- 7. Conclusion 463 References.- Fungi.- 19 Mechanisms of Resistances in the Systemic Mycoses.- 1. Introduction.- 1.1. Natural and Acquired Resistance.- 1.2. Historical Antecedents.- 1.3. Background Information.- 2. Polymorphonuclear Leukocytes.- 2.1. Fate of Fungi within PMNs.- 2.2. Antifungal Mechanisms within PMNs.- 2.3. Extracellular Activity of Antifungal Systems Derived from PMNs.- 2.4. Role of Serum Factors in Intracellular Fate.- 3. Mononuclear Phagocytes.- 3.1. Fate of Fungi within Normal MNs.- 3.2. Acquired Immunity in the Mycoses.- 3.3. Antibody-Dependent Cell-Mediated Antifungal Effects.- 3.4. Antifungal Effects of Irritant-Induced PECs.- 3.5. Antifungal Mechanisms in MNs.- 4. Conclusion.- References.- 20 Immunology of Surface Fungi: Dermatophytes.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Evolutionary Aspects.- 2.1. Dermatophytes.- 2.2. Hosts.- 3. Biochemical and Immunochemical Aspects of Dermatophytes.- 3.1. Factors Contributing to Pathogenesis and Invasiveness.- 3.2. Factors Contributing to Induction of Inflammation.- 3.3. Antigens which Stimulate Immunity.- 3.4. Genetic Features Associated with Virulence.- 3.5. Interaction of Dermatophytes with Normal Flora.- 4. Dermatophyte-Host Interactions.- 4.1. Natural Infections.- 4.2. Experimental Infections.- 4.3. Infection in Susceptible Hosts.- 5. Defense Mechanisms.- 5.1. Natural Factors.- 5.2. Acquired Immunity.- 6. Immunodiagnosis.- 7. Vaccines.- 7.1. For Prophylaxis.- 7.2. For Treatment.- 8. Immunotherapy.- References.- 21 Immunology of Candidiasis.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Classification of C. albicans Infections.- 2.1. Superficial Infections.- 2.2. Disseminated Infections.- 3. Antigenic Structure of C. albicans.- 4. Pathogenicity of C. albicans.- 4.1. Toxicity of Candida Species.- 4.2. Models of Infection with C. albicans.- 5. Mechanisms of Immunity to Candida Infection.- 6. Serum and Secretory Antibodies.- 6.1. Direct Antibody Effector Mechanisms.- 6.2. Indirect Effector Mechanisms.- 6.3. Chemotactic Defects.- 6.4. Phagocytic Defects.- 6.5. Killing Defects.- 7. Complement.- 8. Nonantibody Mechanisms.- 8.1. Candida Clumping Factor.- 8.2. Iron.- 8.3. Bacterial Endotoxin-Induced Factor(s).- 9. Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 9.1. Genetic Defects.- 9.2. Defects of Lymphocyte Function.- 9.3. Macrophage Activation.- 9.4. Classification of CMI Defects in Chronic Mucocutaneous Candidiasis.- 10. Diagnosis of Candida Infections.- 10.1. Antibodies: Serum Antibodies to C. albicans in Normal Subjects.- 10.2. Diagnosis of Candida Infections.- 10.3. Cell-Mediated Immunity.- 11. Immunotherapy of Candida Infections.- 11.1. Leukocyte Transfusion.- 11.2. Bone Marrow Transplantation.- 11.3. Thymus Grafting.- 11.4. Transfer Factor.- References.- 22 Fungi in Pulmonary Allergic Diseases.- 1. General Considerations.- 2. Antigenic Components of Fungi.- 3. Types of Allergic Reaction.- 3.1. Type I: Immediate, Skin-Test Allergic Reactions.- 3.2. Type III: Nonimmediate (Late) Skin-Test Allergic Reactions.- 3.3. Type IV: Delayed, Tuberculin-Type, Allergic Reactions.- 3.4. Type II: Cytotoxic, Allergic Reactions.- 4. Aspergillus Species and Pulmonary Aspergillosis.- 4.1. General Considerations.- 4.2. Immunopathology of ABPA.- 4.3. Bronchiectasis and Type III Allergy to A. fumigatus.- 4.4. Prevalence of ABPA.- 4.5. Atopic Status and ABPA.- 4.6. Corticosteroids in ABPA.- 4.7. Skin Test, Type I and III Reactions to A. fumigatus.- 4.8. Skin-Test Reactivity and Airway Obstruction.- 4.9. Bronchial and Nasal Test Reactions to A. fumigatus.- 4.10. Serological Tests.- 4.11. Precipitin Test Reactions to A. fumigatus.- 4.12. Quantitative Measurement of IgG Antibodies to A. fumigatus.- 4.13. ELISA Test for IgG and IgE Antibodies to Protein and Polysaccharide Antigens of A. fumigatus.- 4.14. Specific IgE Antibodies.- 4.15. Lymphocyte in Vitro Tests with A. fumigatus.- 4.16. Nonatopic Subjects: Extrinsic Allergic Alveotitis.- 4.17. Aspergillus Mycetoma.- 4.18. Invasive Aspergillosis.- 4.19. Cystic Fibrosis and A. fumigatus.- 4.20. Antigens, Allergens, and C-Substance in A. fumigatus.- 4.21. Protein fractions of A. fumigatus.- 4.22 Aspergillus Antigens as Enzymes.- 4.23. Polysaccharides and C-Substance of A. fumigatus.- 5. Candida albicans.- 5.1. General Considerations.- 5.2. Antigens of C. albicans and Their Immunological Reactions.- 5.3. Immunological Reactivity to Different Antigenic Preparations of C. albicans.- 5.4. Skin Tests.- 5.5. Serological Tests.- 5.6. Tests for Specific IgE Antibody.- 6. General Comments.- References.- 23 Immunology of Invasive Fungal Infections.- 1. Introduction.- 2. Evolutionary Aspects.- 3. Microbial Aspects.- 3.1. Coccidioides immitis.- 3.2. Histoplasma capsulatum.- 3.3. Blastomyces dermatitidis.- 3.4. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.- 3.5. Sporothrix schenckii.- 3.6. Cryptococcus neoformans.- 3.7. Absidia, Mucor, and Rhizopus spp..- 4. Host.- 4.1. Coccidioides immitis.- 4.2. Histoplasma capsulatum.- 4.3. Blastomyces dermatitidis.- 4.4. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.- 4.5. Sporothrix schenckii.- 4.6. Cryptococcus neoformans.- 4.7. Absidia, Mucor, and Rhizopus spp..- 5. Microbe-Host Interactions.- 5.1. Coccidioides immitis.- 5.2. Histoplasma capsulatum.- 5.3. Blastomyces dermatitidis.- 5.4. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.- 5.5. Sporothrix schenckii.- 5.6. Cryptococcus neoformans.- 5.7. Absidia, Mucor, and Rhizopus spp..- 6. Immunodiagnosis.- 6.1. Coccidioides immitis.- 6.2. Histoplasma capsulatum.- 6.3. Blastomyces dermatitidis.- 6.4. Paracoccidioides brasiliensis.- 6.5. Sporothrix schenckii.- 6.6. Cryptococcus neoformans.- 6.7. Absidia, Mucor, and Rhizopus spp..- 7. Immunoprevention.- 8. Immunotherapy.- References.