Electrospun Materials and Their Allied Applications

The aim of this book is to explore the history, fundamentals, manufacturing processes, optimization parameters, and applications of electrospun materials. The book includes various types of electrospun materials such as antimicrobial, smart, bioinspired systems. It focuses on the many application areas for electrospun materials such as energy storage and harvesting, catalysis, biomedical including gene delivery and tissue engineering, separation, adsorption and water treatment technologies, packaging. The book emphasizes the enhanced sustainable properties of electrospun materials, with the challenges and future developments being discussed in detail. The chapters are written by top-class researchers and experts from throughout the world.

Preface xv

1 Electrospinning Fabrication Strategies: From Conventional to Advanced Approaches 1
J.R. Dias, Alexandra I. F. Alves, Carolina A. Marzia-Ferreira and Nuno M. Alves

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Conventional Fabrication Approaches 3

1.2.1 Randomly Oriented Fiber Meshes 3

1.2.2 Aligned Fiber Meshes 8

1.2.3 Fibers With Core/Shell Structure 14

1.3 Advanced Fabrication Approaches 19

1.3.1 Melt Electrospinning 19

1.3.2 Near Field Electrospinning 22

1.3.3 Electroblowing 23

1.3.4 Hybrid Structures 25

1.3.5 Cell Electrospinning 30

1.3.6 In Situ Electrospinning 33

1.4 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 36

Acknowledgments 37

References 37

2 History, Basics, and Parameters of Electrospinning Technique 53
Aysel Kantürk Figen

2.1 Definitions 53

2.2 Milestone of Electrospinning Technique 54

2.3 Setup and Configuration of Electrospinning Technique 56

2.4 Parameters 59

2.4.1 Polymer Solutions 59

2.4.2 Spin Parameters 62

2.4.3 Environmental Parameters 63

2.5 Concluding Remarks 64

References 65

3 Physical Characterization of Electrospun Fibers 71
Anushka Purabgola and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian

3.1 Introduction 72

3.2 Characterization Techniques 76

3.2.1 Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) 76

3.2.2 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) 77

3.2.3 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) 79

3.2.4 High-Resolution TEM (HRTEM) 80

3.2.5 Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) 81

3.2.6 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) 83

3.2.7 Nanoindentation 84

3.2.8 Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 85

3.2.9 Thermalgravimetric Analysis (TGA) 85

3.3 Physical Characterization of Electrospun Fibers 87

3.3.1 Electrospun Polymer Nanofibers 87

3.3.1.1 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Nanofiber 87

3.3.1.2 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) Fibrous Nanofibers 91

3.3.1.3 Polydodecylthiophene (PDT) Core–Polyethylene Oxide (PEO) Shell Polymer Nanofiber 92

3.3.1.4 Polymethylmethacrylate (PMMA) Nanofiber 92

3.3.2 Electrospun Metal (Oxide) Nanofiber 94

3.3.2.1 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)/Nickel Acetate 95

3.3.2.2 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP)/TiO2 Nanofibers 96

3.3.2.3 Polyethylene Oxide/Polyvinylpyrrolidone–Iron Oxide Nanofiber 96

3.3.3 Electrospun Nanocomposite Nanofibers 97

3.3.3.1 TiO2/SiO2/C (TSC) Nanofibers 98

3.3.3.2 Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)/ZnO Nanocomposite Nanofiber 100

3.3.3.3 Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA)/Cellulose Nanocrystals Composite Nanofibers 101

3.3.4 Electrospun Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs) 104

3.3.4.1 Polyacrylonitrile (PAN)/N-Doped CNFs 104

3.3.4.2 Lignan-Derived CNFs/PAN 104

3.3.4.3 Poly(L-Laticide-Co- -Caprolactone) (PLCL)/MWCNTs Nanofibers 105

3.4 Conclusion 108

References 109

4 Application of Electrospun Materials in Catalysis 113
Bilge Coşkuner Filiz

4.1 Introduction 113

4.2 Type of Catalysts 115

4.2.1 Catalyst Supports 115

4.2.2 Template for Catalytic Nanotubes 116

4.2.3 Metal Oxide Catalysts 117

4.3 Catalytic Applications 117

4.3.1 Energy Field 118

4.3.1.1 Oxidation Reactions 118

4.3.1.2 Reduction Reactions 119

4.3.1.3 Hydrogen Generation Reactions 120

4.3.2 Environment Field 121

4.3.2.1 Oxidation Reactions 121

4.3.2.2 Reduction Reactions 122

4.3.2.3 Degradation Reactions 122

4.4 Conclusion 124

References 125

5 Application of Electrospun Materials in Packaging Industry 131
Samson Rwahwire, Catherine Namuga and Nibikora Ildephonse

5.1 Packaging Industry 131

5.2 Electrospinning 132

5.3 Nanofibers 135

5.4 Biopolymers 135

5.4.1 Nanoencapsulation 135

5.4.2 Methods of Encapsulation Application in Food Packaging 139

5.4.3 Drying 140

5.4.4 Nano-Enabled Packaging Solutions 140

5.4.5 Food Packaging 141

5.4.6 Active Food Packaging 142

5.5 Future Perspectives 144

References 145

6 Application of Electrospun Materials in Water Treatment 151
Shivani Rastogi and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian

6.1 Introduction 152

6.2 Heavy Metal Ion Removal From Wastewater 154

6.2.1 Cellulose/Camphor Soot Nanofibers 157

6.2.2 Spider-Web Textured Electrospun Graphene Composite Fibers 158

6.2.3 Resorcinol–Formaldehyde Nanofibers 161

6.2.4 Ion-Imprinted Chitosan/1-Butyl-3-Methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate Fibers 162

6.2.5 Molecular Imprinted Camphor Soot Functionalized PAN Nanofibers 164

6.2.6 Iron Functionalized Chitosan Electrospun NFs (ICS-ENF) 166

6.2.7 Cellulose/Organically Modified Montmorillonite 166

6.3 Dye Removal From Wastewater 167

6.3.1 Zein Nanofibers 167

6.3.2 β-Cyclodextrin Based Nanofibers 169

6.3.3 3-Mercapto Propionic Acid Coated Fe3O4 NP Immobilized Amidoximated Polyacrylonitrile 171

6.3.4 Functionalized Polyacrylonitrile Membrane 171

6.4 Oil–Water Separation 172

6.4.1 Wettable Cotton-Based Janus Bio Fabric (PLA/Functionalized Organoclay) 172

6.4.2 Camphor Soot Immobilized Fluoroelastomer Membrane 174

6.4.3 Polycaprolactone/Beeswax Membrane 174

6.5 Microbe Elimination From Wastewater 176

6.5.1 β-Cyclodextrin/Cellulose Acetate Embedded Ag and Ag/Fe Nanoparticles 176

6.5.2 Silver Coated Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) Membrane 177

6.6 Antibiotic Removal From Wastewater 178

6.7 Conclusion 180

References 180

7 Application of Electrospun Materials in Oil–Water Separations 185
T.C. Mokhena, M.J. John, M.J. Mochane and P.C. Tsipa

7.1 Introduction 185

7.2 Oil Spill Clean-Up 187

7.2.1 Hydrophobic–Oleophilic Polymer Nanofiber 187

7.2.2 Blends 191

7.2.3 Composites 194

7.3 Separation Membranes 195

7.4 Thin-Film Composite (TFC) Membranes 202

7.5 Three Dimensional (3D) Nanofibrous Membranes 203

7.6 Smart Membranes 204

7.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 208

Acknowledgments 209

References 209

8 Application of Electrospun Materials in Industrial Applications 215
Anisa Andleeb and Muhammad Yar

8.1 Introduction 216

8.2 Technology Transfer From Research Laboratories to Industries 218

8.3 Industrial Applications of Electrospun Materials 220

8.3.1 Biomedical Materials 221

8.3.2 Defense and Security 227

8.3.3 Textile Industry 227

8.3.4 Catalyst 228

8.3.5 Energy Harvest 229

8.3.6 Filtration 230

8.3.7 Sensor Applications 232

8.3.8 Food 234

8.4 Current and Future Developments 236

References 237

9 Antimicrobial Electrospun Materials 243
Samson Afewerki, Guillermo U. Ruiz-Esparza and Anderson O. Lobo

9.1 Introduction 244

9.1.1 Electrospinning Technology 244

9.1.2 Antimicrobial Materials 246

9.1.3 Antimicrobial Electrospun Materials 246

9.1.4 Conclusions and Future Directions 254

Acknowledgments 255

References 255

10 Application of Electrospun Materials in Gene Delivery 265
GSN Koteswara Rao, Mallesh Kurakula and Khushwant S. Yadav

10.1 Introduction 266

10.2 Gene Therapy 266

10.3 Cellular Uptake of Nonviral Gene Delivery 268

10.4 Vectors 269

10.4.1 Viral Vectors 269

10.4.2 Nonviral Vectors 270

10.4.3 Delivery of Genes through Vectors 271

10.5 Nanofibers/Scaffolds 273

10.6 Electrospinning 275

10.6.1 Steps Involved in the Electrospinning Process 276

10.6.2 Types of Electrospinning 279

10.7 Characterization 281

10.8 Applications of Electrospun Materials 282

10.8.1 Electrospun Materials in Gene Delivery 282

10.8.1.1 Tissue Engineering 282

10.8.1.2 Regenerative Medicine 284

10.8.1.3 Vascular Grafts 284

10.8.1.4 Bone Regeneration 285

10.8.1.5 Diabetic Ulcer Treatment 286

10.8.1.6 Cancer Treatment 287

10.8.1.7 Blood Vessel Regeneration 287

10.8.1.8 Wound Management 288

10.8.1.9 Carrier for Genetic Material Loaded Nanoparticles 288

10.8.1.10 Myocardial Infarction Treatment 288

10.8.1.11 Stem Cell-Based Therapy 289

10.8.1.12 Gene Silencing 289

10.8.1.13 Controlled Release of Gene 290

10.8.1.14 DNA Delivery 290

10.8.2 Electrospun Materials in Drug Delivery 291

10.8.2.1 Antibiotics and Various Antibacterial Agents 292

10.8.2.2 Anticancer Drugs 292

10.8.2.3 Cancer Diagnosis 292

10.8.2.4 Wound Management 293

10.8.2.5 Tissue Engineering 293

10.8.2.6 Bone Tissue Engineering 293

10.8.2.7 Dental Growth 294

10.8.2.8 Therapeutic Delivery Systems 294

10.8.3 Electrospun Materials in Miscellaneous Applications 294

10.9 Future Scope and Challenges 296

10.10 Conclusion 296

References 297

11 Application of Electrospun Materials in Bioinspired Systems 307
Anca Filimon, Adina Maria Dobos, Oana Dumbrava and Adriana Popa

11.1 Introduction 308

11.2 Composite Materials Based on Cellulosic Nanofibers 309

11.2.1 Processing of Cellulose-Based Materials 310

11.2.2 Structure–Property–Biological Activity Relationship 310

11.2.2.1 Biosensors Based on Cellulosic Fibers 310

11.2.2.2 Delivery Systems and Controlled Release of Drugs 312

11.2.2.3 Wound Dressing 316

11.2.2.4 Tissue Engineering 317

11.3 Chitosan Nanofibrous Scaffolds 322

11.3.1 Overview on Obtained Chitosan From Bio-Waste Source 322

11.3.2 Specific Applications of Chitosan Nanofibers in Bio Inspired Systems 325

11.3.2.1 Wound Dressing 325

11.3.2.2 Drug Delivery 329

11.3.2.3 Tissue Engineering 330

11.3.2.4 Antibacterial Activity 336

11.4 Conclusions 339

References 339

12 Smart Electrospun Materials 351
Gaurav Sharma, Shivani Rastogi and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian

12.1 Introduction 352

12.2 Smart Electrospun Materials in Biomedical Applications 354

12.2.1 Tissue Engineering 354

12.2.2 Controlled Drug Delivery 355

12.2.3 Wound Healing 356

12.3 Smart Electrospun Materials for Environmental Remediation 357

12.3.1 Water Pollution Control 357

12.3.2 Air Pollution Control 359

12.3.3 Noise Pollution Control 360

12.4 Smart Electrospun Materials in Electronics 361

12.4.1 Solar Cell 361

12.4.2 Energy Harvesters 362

12.4.3 Shape-Memory Polymers 363

12.4.4 Batteries and Supercapacitors 364

12.4.5 Sensors, Transistors, and Diodes 366

12.5 Smart Electrospun Materials in Textiles 368

12.5.1 Biomedical Parameter Regulation 368

12.5.2 Protection from Environment Threat 369

12.5.3 Energy Harvesters in Textiles 370

12.5.4 Smart Textile Project 370

12.6 Smart Electrospun Materials in Food Packaging 371

12.7 Conclusion 372

References 373

13 Advances in Electrospinning Technique in the Manufacturing Process of Nanofibrous Materials 379
Karine Cappuccio de Castro, Josiel Martins Costa and Lucia Helena Innocentini Mei

13.1 Introduction 380

13.2 Process 380

13.3 Important Parameters 382

13.3.1 Effects of the Applied Tension 382

13.3.2 Effects of Solution Eject Rate 382

13.3.3 Effects of Needle-to-Collector Distance and Needle Diameter 384

13.3.4 Effects of Solution Concentration and Viscosity 384

13.3.5 Effects of Solution Conductivity 385

13.3.6 Solvent Effects 385

13.3.7 Effects of Surface Tension 385

13.3.8 Humidity and Temperature Effects 386

13.4 Recent Advances in the Technique 386

13.4.1 Electrospinning Coaxial 386

13.4.2 Electrospinning Triaxial 387

13.4.3 Multiple Needle Electrospinning 387

13.4.4 Electroblowing 387

13.4.5 Magnetic Electrospinning 388

13.4.6 Centrifugal Electrospinning 388

13.4.7 Needleless Electrospinning 388

13.5 Coaxial Electrospinning as an Excellent Process for Hollow Fiber and Drug Delivery Device Production 389

13.6 Applications 390

13.7 Conclusions and Future Perspectives 393

References 393

14 Application of Electrospun Materials in Filtration and Sorbents 401
T.S. Motsoeneg, T.E. Mokoena, T.C. Mokhena and M.J. Mochane

14.1 Introduction 402

14.2 Morphology of Sorbents With Concomitant Sorption Capacity 403

14.3 Mechanistic Overview in Purification During Filtration 406

14.4 Conclusion and Future Prospects 410

References 411

15 Application of Electrospun Materials in Batteries 415
Subhash B. Kondawar and Monali V. Bhute

15.1 Introduction 416

15.2 Electrospun Nanofibers as Anodes 418

15.2.1 Carbon Nanofibers as Anode 418

15.2.2 Metal Oxide Nanofibers as Anode 419

15.3 Electrospun Nanofibers as Cathode 423

15.3.1 Lithium Metal Oxide Nanofibers as Cathode 423

15.3.2 Transition Metal Oxides Nanofibers as Cathode 424

15.4 Electrospun Nanofibers as Separator 425

15.4.1 Polymer Nanofibers as Separator 426

15.4.2 Polymer–Inorganic Nanofiber Separators 430

15.5 Conclusions and Outlook 432

References 433

16 State-of-the-Art and Future Electrospun Technology 441
Prasansha Rastogi and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian

16.1 Introduction 442

16.2 Some General Smart Applications of Electrospun Membranes 445

16.3 Stimuli Responsive or Shape Memory Electrospun Membranes 454

16.4 Conclusion 473

Acknowledgment 474

References 474

17 Antimicrobial Electrospun Materials 483
Rushikesh S. Ambekar and Balasubramanian Kandasubramanian

17.1 Introduction 484

17.2 Drug-Loaded Polymer Nanofibers 485

17.3 Drug-Loaded Biodegradable Polymer Nanofibers 485

17.4 Drug-Loaded Non-Biodegradable Polymer Nanofibers 501

17.5 Conclusion and Future Scope 507

References 508

Index 515

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia and is also an assistant professor in the Department of Applied Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in multidisciplinary fields of analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy and environmental science. He has published about 150 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 60 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.

Rajender Boddula, PdD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President's International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals, edited books with numerous publishers and has authored twenty book chapters.

Mohd Imran Ahamed received his Ph.D on the topic "Synthesis and characterization of inorganic-organic composite heavy metals selective cation-exchangers and their analytical applications", from Aligarh Muslim University, India in 2019. He has published several research and review articles in SCI journals. His research focusses on ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment and analysis, actuators and electrospinning.

Abdullah M. Asiri is the Head of the Chemistry Department at King Abdulaziz University and the founder and Director of the Center of Excellence for Advanced Materials Research (CEAMR). He is the Editor-in-Chief of the King Abdulaziz University Journal of Science. He has received numerous awards, including the first prize for distinction in science from the Saudi Chemical Society in 2012. He holds multiple patents, has authored ten books and more than one thousand publications in international journals.