Epoxy Composites
Fabrication, Characterization and Applications

Discover a one-stop resource for in-depth knowledge on epoxy composites from leading voices in the field 

Used in a wide variety of materials engineering applications, epoxy composites are highly relevant to the work of engineers and scientists in many fields. Recent developments have allowed for significant advancements in their preparation, processing and characterization that are highly relevant to the aerospace and automobile industry, among others. 

In Epoxy Composites: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications, a distinguished team of authors and editors deliver a comprehensive and straightforward summary of the most recent developments in the area of epoxy composites. The book emphasizes their preparation, characterization and applications, providing a complete understanding of the correlation of rheology, cure reaction, morphology, and thermo-mechanical properties with filler dispersion. 

Readers will learn about a variety of topics on the cutting-edge of epoxy composite fabrication and characterization, including smart epoxy composites, theoretical modeling, recycling and environmental issues, safety issues, and future prospects for these highly practical materials. 

Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of: 

• A thorough introduction to epoxy composites, their synthesis and manufacturing, and micro- and nano-scale structure formation in epoxy and clay nanocomposites 
• An exploration of long fiber reinforced epoxy composites and eco-friendly epoxy-based composites 
• Practical discussions of the processing of epoxy composites based on carbon nanomaterials and the thermal stability and flame retardancy of epoxy composites 
• An analysis of the spectroscopy and X-ray scattering studies of epoxy composites  

Perfect for materials scientists, polymer chemists, and mechanical engineers, Epoxy Composites: Fabrication, Characterization and Applications will also earn a place in the libraries of engineering scientists working in industry and process engineers seeking a comprehensive and exhaustive resource on epoxy composites. 

1 Introduction to Epoxy Composites 1
Harikrishnan Pulikkalparambil, Sanjay Mavinkere Rangappa, Suchart Siengchin, and Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Manufacturing Methods for Fabrication of Epoxy Composites 2

1.3 Experimental Techniques for the Characterization of Epoxy Composites 3

1.4 Properties of Epoxy Composites 6

1.4.1 Mechanical Properties 6

1.4.2 Dielectric Properties 9

1.4.3 Water/Moisture Absorption 9

1.4.4 Morphology 11

1.5 Conclusion 13

References 13

2 Synthesis and Manufacturing of Epoxy Composites 23
Turup P. Mohan and K. Kanny

2.1 Introduction 23

2.2 History of Epoxy Resin 23

2.3 Types of Epoxy Resins 24

2.3.1 Bisphenol-A Epoxy Resin 24

2.3.2 Bisphenol-F Epoxy Resin 24

2.3.3 Phenol Novolac Epoxy Resin 25

2.3.4 Cycloaliphatic Epoxy Resin 26

2.3.5 Epoxy Resin Diluents 26

2.3.6 Glycidylamine Epoxy Resin 27

2.4 Curing 27

2.4.1 Curing Agents 27

2.4.1.1 Polyaddition Reactions (Active Hydrogen Compounds) 28

2.4.1.2 Polyamide and Polyamine 28

2.4.1.3 Secondary and Tertiary Amines 30

2.4.2 Anionic and Cationic Initiators 31

2.4.2.1 Imidazole (Anionic Polymerizing) 31

2.4.2.2 Polymercaptan 31

2.4.2.3 Anhydrides 32

2.4.2.4 Canhydrides 32

2.4.2.5 Alicyclic Anhydrides 32

2.4.2.6 Aliphatic Anhydrides 32

2.4.3 Latent Curing Agents 32

2.4.3.1 Light-Curing and Ultraviolet-Curing Agents 33

2.4.3.2 Boron Trifluoride–Amine Complex 33

2.4.3.3 Dicyandiamide 33

2.4.3.4 Organic-Acid Hydrazide 33

2.4.4 Curing Conditions 34

2.4.4.1 Bisphenol-A Epoxy Resin 34

2.4.4.2 Bisphenol-F Epoxy Resin 34

2.4.4.3 Phenol Novolac Epoxy Resin 34

2.4.4.4 Cycloaliphatic Epoxy Resin 34

2.4.4.5 Glycidylamine Epoxy Resin 34

2.5 Reaction Mechanisms 34

2.5.1 Bisphenol-A Epoxy Resin 34

2.5.2 Bisphenol-F Epoxy Resin 35

2.5.3 Phenol Novolac Epoxy Resin 35

2.5.4 Cycloaliphatic Epoxy Resin 35

2.5.5 Epoxy Resin Diluents 36

2.6 Safety and Environmental Factors of Epoxy Resins 36

2.6.1 Bisphenol-A Epoxy Resin, Bisphenol-F Epoxy Resin, Glycidylamine Epoxy Resin, Epoxy Resin Diluents 36

2.6.1.1 Health Risks 36

2.6.1.2 Environmental Issues 36

2.6.2 Phenol Novolac Epoxy Resin 36

2.6.2.1 Health Risks 36

2.6.2.2 Environmental Issues 36

2.6.3 Cycloaliphatic Epoxy Resin 37

2.6.3.1 Health Risks 37

2.6.3.2 Environmental Issues 37

2.7 Manufacturing of Epoxy Composites 37

2.7.1 Open Molding 37

2.7.1.1 Hand Lay-Up 38

2.7.1.2 Spray-Up 39

2.7.1.3 Filament Winding 40

2.7.2 Closed Molding 41

2.7.2.1 Reinforced Reaction Injection Molding (RRIM) 41

2.7.2.2 Vacuum-Assisted Resin Transfer Molding Process (VARTM) 43

2.7.2.3 Light Resin Transfer Molding (LRTM) 44

2.7.2.4 Vacuum Infusion Process (VIP) 45

2.7.2.5 Pultrusion Process 46

2.7.2.6 Vacuum Bag Molding (Wet Bagging) 47

2.7.2.7 Centrifugal Casting 48

2.7.3 Natural Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites 49

2.7.3.1 Manufacturing of Natural Fiber Reinforced Epoxy Composites 49

2.8 Preparing of Particulate Filled Epoxy Composites 51

2.8.1 Particle Reinforced Epoxy Composites 51

2.8.2 Nanoparticle-Filled Epoxy Composite 51

2.8.2.1 Method 1 52

2.8.2.2 Method 2 52

2.9 Futuristic Processing of Epoxy-Based Composites 52

2.9.1 Fast Curing Powder Adhesive Epoxy Resin 52

2.9.2 3D Printing 53

2.9.3 Adhesive Method 53

2.9.4 Ultrasonic Fabrication Method for Epoxy Resin/SbSI Nanowire Composites 54

2.9.5 Electron-Beam (E-Beam) Curing 54

2.9.6 Automated Fiber Placement (AFP) Epoxy Resin Composite 54

2.10 Conclusion 54

References 55

3 Micro- and Nanoscale Structure Formation in Epoxy-Clay Nanocomposites 61
Seno Jose, V. K. Smitha, Sanjay M. Rangappa, Senthilkumar Krishnasamy, Debabrata Nandi, Suchart Siengchin, and Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai

3.1 Introduction 61

3.2 Micro and Nanoscale Structures of Polymer/Clay Nanocomposites 62

3.3 Evolution of Epoxy-Clay Nanocomposite Structure 65

3.4 Mechanism of Nanocomposite Formation 67

3.5 Conclusion and Future Outlook 72

References 73

4 Long Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites 83
Ayesha Kausar

4.1 Introduction 83

4.2 Long Fiber Fillers 84

4.3 Long Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composite 84

4.3.1 Epoxy and Long Glass Fiber Composite 84

4.3.2 Epoxy and Long Carbon Fiber Composite 87

4.3.3 Epoxy and Natural Fiber Composite 90

4.4 Applications, Future Prospective, and Summary 90

References 92

5 Eco-Friendly Epoxy-Based Composites 97
Vivek Mishra and Alok Agrawal

5.1 Introduction 97

5.2 Physical Behavior of Natural Fiber/Filler-Reinforced Epoxy Composites 100

5.3 Mechanical Properties of the Epoxy-Based Composites 103

5.3.1 Tensile Properties 104

5.3.2 Impact Properties 106

5.4 Thermal Behavior of Natural Fiber/Filler-Reinforced Epoxy Composites 108

5.5 Wear Behavior of Natural Fiber/Filler-Reinforced Epoxy Composites 115

5.5.1 Erosive Wear 115

5.5.2 Adhesive Wear 115

5.5.3 Abrasive Wear 116

5.6 Bioepoxy Composites 118

5.7 Conclusion 119

References 119

6 Processing of Epoxy Composites Based on Carbon Nanomaterials 125
Lourdes Ramos-Galicia, Juventino López-Barroso, Julio Alejandro Rodríguez-González, Carlos Velasco-Santos, Carlos Rubio-González, and Ana Laura Martínez-Hernández

6.1 Introduction 125

6.2 Epoxy Nanocomposites Reinforced with 1D and 2D Carbon Materials, Mechanical and Thermomechanical Performance 126

6.3 Tracing of Cure Reaction 136

6.3.1 1D Carbon Nanostructures Influence over the Epoxy Cure Reaction 137

6.3.2 Influence of 2D Carbon Nanostructures Over the Cure Reaction 139

6.3.3 3D Hybrid Carbon Nanostructures over Cure Reaction of Epoxy Nanocomposites 143

6.4 Improved Mechanical Properties of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (Epoxy) through the Incorporation of Carbon Nanostructures 146

6.4.1 CFRPs (Based Epoxy) Modified with Carbon Nanotubes 147

6.4.2 CFRPs (Based Epoxy) Modified with Graphene-Based Materials 154

6.4.3 CFRPs (Based Epoxy) Modified with Hybrids (Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene) 158

6.5 Concluding Remarks 160

References 161

7 Thermal Stability and Flame Retardancy of Epoxy Composites 177
Mohamedismail Fathima Rigana, Tharakan Simi Anne, Sadhasivam Balaji, Shanmugam Chandrasekar, and Muthusamy Sarojadevi

7.1 Introduction 177

7.2 Effects of Micro Fillers on Thermal Properties of Epoxy Resin 178

7.2.1 Epoxy/Glass Fiber Composites 178

7.2.1.1 Bis(4-cyanato-3,5-dimethylphenyl) Naphthyl Methane/Epoxy/Glass Fiber Composites 178

7.2.1.2 Epoxy (DGEBA) Resin+CSE (Chlorinated Soy Oil) – Based Epoxy/Glass Fiber Composites 179

7.2.1.3 Novolac-Type Epoxy and Isocyanate-Modified Epoxy/Glass Fiber Composites 182

7.2.2 Epoxy/Natural Fiber Composites 182

7.2.2.1 Epoxy (DER 331)/Kenaf Fiber Composites 182

7.2.2.2 Epoxy (Ampreg 26)/Phormium tenax Composites 185

7.2.3 Epoxy/Natural Fiber Hybrid Composites 186

7.2.3.1 Epoxy (Araldite M)/Jute–Glass Fiber Hybrid Composites 186

7.2.3.2 Epoxy/Flax and Sisal–Glass Fiber Composites 186

7.2.3.3 Epoxy (DER 331)/MH (Magnesium Hydroxide)-Kenaf Fiber Composites 187

7.3 Effect of Nanofillers on Thermal Properties of Epoxy Resin 188

7.3.1 Epoxy/Clay Nanocomposites 188

7.3.1.1 Epoxy (DGEBA)/Clay Nanocomposites 188

7.3.1.2 Epoxy (E51)/D-clay (Na⁺-MMT) Nanocomposites 189

7.3.1.3 Epoxy (DGEBA)/Cloisite Na+, Cloisite 10A, Cloisite 15, Cloisite 93A Nanocomposites 190

7.3.1.4 Organo Phosphorus Epoxy/Clay Nanocomposite 190

7.3.1.5 Epoxy (DGEBA)/DNA-Modified MMT Clay Nanocomposites 191

7.3.2 Epoxy/CNF Nanocomposites 192

7.3.2.1 Epoxy (SC-15)/Carbon Nano Fiber (PR-24) Nanocomposites 192

7.3.3 Epoxy/CNT Nanocomposites 194

7.3.3.1 CNT/Epoxy Nanocomposites 194

7.3.4 Epoxy/Cellulose Nanofiber Nanocomposites 196

7.3.4.1 Epoxy (D.E.R. 331)/Cellulose Nanofiber Nanocomposites 196

7.3.5 Epoxy/Spherical Metal Oxide Nanocomposites 196

7.3.5.1 Epoxy (Epon 862)/Coreshell Fe@FeO Nanocomposites 196

7.3.5.2 Epoxy (Epon 862)/Polyaniline-Stabilized Silica Nano Composites 199

7.3.6 Epoxy Based Hybrid Nanocomposites 201

7.3.6.1 Epoxy (DGEBA)/CNT/OMPOSS/APP Hybrid Nanocomposite 201

7.3.6.2 Acrylonitrile–Butadiene–Styrene/Brominated Epoxy–Antimony Oxide/Organo Montmorillonite (ABS/BER-AO/OMT) Nanocomposites 202

7.3.6.3 Epoxy/Ag@Cu–Ag@rGO Nanocomposite-Based Conductive Adhesives 203

7.3.6.4 Epoxy/HM-SiO₂@CeO₂/NiO Nanocomposites 203

7.3.6.5 Epoxy (Araldite)/Microsilica/Nanoalumina Nanocomposites 204

7.4 Epoxy-Based Hybrid Micro and Nanocomposites 204

7.4.1 Epoxy (LY556)–Closite 25A OMMT/Glassfiber Micro Nano Composite 204

7.4.2 Epoxy/Glass Fiber (GE) Composites, Epoxy/Glass Fiber/FGO Nanocomposites 205

7.4.3 Epoxy/Glass Fiber (GE) Composites and Epoxy/Glassfiber/Nano Al₂O₃ Nanocomposites 205

7.4.4 Epoxy/CF/DWCNT-NH₂ Micro-Nanocomposites 206

7.4.5 Epoxy/Carbon Fiber Composites, Epoxy/Carbon Nanotube Membrane/Carbon Nanofiber (CNF) Paper Micro-Nanocomposites 207

7.5 Conclusions 211

Acknowledgments 212

References 212

8 Spectroscopy and X-ray Scattering Studies of Epoxy Composites 217
P. Poornima Vijayan

8.1 Introduction 217

8.2 In situ Cure Monitoring 218

8.3 Characterization of Interface in Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites 225

8.4 Determination of Residual Stress Developed During Cure 228

8.5 Stress Transmission Studies in Particulate Filled Epoxy Composite 231

8.6 Water Diffusion Studies 232

8.7 Morphological Analysis in Epoxy Composites 233

8.8 Conclusion 236

References 236

9 Water Absorption Studies in Epoxy Nanocomposites 241
Bejoy Francis

9.1 Introduction 241

9.2 Factors Affecting Water Absorption 242

9.3 Effect of Water Absorption on Mechanical Properties 247

9.4 Effect of Water Absorption on Dynamic Mechanical Properties 251

9.5 Effect of Water Absorption on Thermomechanical Properties 253

9.6 Effect of Water Absorption on Dielectric Properties 254

9.7 Conclusion 255

References 255

10 Fracture Surface and Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Composites 259
Mehdi Naderi and Farnaz Ebrahimi

10.1 Introduction 259

10.2 Morphology 266

10.2.1 Dispersion and Interfacial Adhesion 266

10.2.2 Fracture Surface Morphology 273

10.3 Mechanical Properties 278

10.3.1 Stress–Strain Behavior 278

10.3.2 Fracture Toughness 281

10.3.3 Impact Properties 282

10.3.4 Dynamic Mechanical Properties 284

10.3.5 Lap Shear Properties 288

10.4 Conclusions and Outlooks 290

References 292

11 Dielectric and Conductivity Studies of Epoxy Composites 299
Anastasios C. Patsidis and Georgios C. Psarras

11.1 Introduction 299

11.2 Experimental Techniques and Data Interpretation 300

11.2.1 Experimental Techniques 300

11.2.2 Dielectric and Conductivity Data Interpretation 300

11.3 Electrical Properties of Epoxy Resins 302

11.4 Epoxy/Nonconductive Reinforcing Phase Composites 306

11.4.1 Epoxy/Nonconductive Filler Micro-composites 306

11.4.2 Epoxy/Nonconductive Filler Nanocomposites 312

11.5 Epoxy/Conductive Reinforcing Phase Composites 317

11.5.1 Epoxy/Conductive Filler Micro-composites 317

11.5.2 Epoxy/Conductive Filler Nanocomposites 325

11.6 Epoxy-Based Hybrid Composites – Targeting Multifunctionality 332

11.7 Conclusions and Future Trends 343

References 343

12 Smart Epoxy Composites 349
Reza Eslami-Farsani and Hossein Ebrahimnezhad-Khaljiri

12.1 Introduction 349

12.2 Shape Memory Epoxy Polymers and their Composites 350

12.2.1 The Creation of Shape Memory Behavior into Epoxy 350

12.2.2 Shape Memory Behavior in Epoxy-Based Nanocomposites 354

12.2.3 Shape Memory Behavior in Epoxy-Based Composite Structures 358

12.2.4 Shape Memory Wires in the Epoxy Composites 360

12.3 Smart Epoxy Composite Coating 360

12.3.1 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials–Epoxy Coating 364

12.3.2 Clay-Based Nanomaterials–Epoxy Coating 365

12.3.3 Silica-Based Nanomaterials–Epoxy Coating 366

12.3.4 Layered Double Hydroxide-Based Nanomaterials–Epoxy Coating 367

12.3.5 Other Nanoparticles–Epoxy Coating 367

12.3.6 Polymer Micro-/Nanocontainer–Epoxy Coating 368

12.4 Self-Healing Epoxy Polymers and their Composites 371

12.4.1 Self-Healing Behavior 371

12.4.2 Intrinsic Healing System 372

12.4.3 Vascular Healing System 375

12.4.4 Microcapsule Healing System 377

12.5 Future Trends 380

12.6 Conclusion 380

References 381

13 Projects Using Composite Epoxy Materials: Applications, Recycling Methods, Environmental Issues, Safety, and Future Directions 395
Alencar Bravo and Darli Vieira

13.1 Introduction and Context of ECM Projects 395

13.2 Different Applications for ECMs 397

13.3 Safety and Environmental Issues of ECM Projects 400

13.4 Recycling Options for ECMs and Pollution Mitigation by Early Design 405

13.5 The Future for ECM Projects and Conclusions 410

References 412

Index 421

Jyotishkumar Parameswaranpillai is a Research Professor at the Center of Innovation in Design and Engineering for Manufacturing at King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok in Bangkok, Thailand.

Harikrishnan Pulikkalparambil is a Senior Research Fellow at King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok in Bangkok, Thailand.

Sanjay M. Rangappa is a Research Scientist at King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand.

Suchart Siengchin is President of King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok in Bangkok, Thailand.