Advances in Solar Energy, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1985
An Annual Review of Research and Development Volume 2

A number of significant changes have occurred in Advances in Solar Energy since Volume 1 appeared in 1982. The delays in publication of the second volume are the result of reorganization of the American Solar Energy Society, and the negotiation of a new publishing arrangement. Beginning with this volume, Advances is now published jointly by the Society and Plenum Press. The Editorial Board has been enlarged to be more representative of the different fields of solar energy conversion. Production of Advances is being expedited through the use of modern word processing equipment and the 'lEX typesetting-editing program. We have gone to a single-column format to ease the problems of presenting long equations, and we expect that the user of the volume will find it easy to read. The use of 'lEX will make last minute updates possible. The external appearance of the volume matches that of Volume 1. We expect that future volumes of this annual will be proceeding on schedule. We invite comments from users and correspondence from prospective authors of critical reviews. Karl W. Boer John A. Duffie CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 The Measurement of Solar Radiation Ronald Stewart, Daniel W. Spencer and Richard Perez 1.1 Abstract 1 1.2 Characteristics of Pyranometers ....................................... . 2 1.3 General Features of a Pyranometer ................................... . 3 1.3.1 Instrument Sensitivity 4 1.3.2 Response with Time 4 1.3.3 Sensitivity 4 1.3.4 Responsivity ................................................. .

1 The Measurement of Solar Radiation.- 1.1 Abstract.- 1.2 Characteristics of Pyranometers.- 1.3 General Features of a Pyranometer.- 1.3.1 Instrument Sensitivity.- 1.3.2 Response with Time.- 1.3.3 Sensitivity.- 1.3.4 Responsivity.- 1.3.5 Temperature Coefficient of Sensitivity.- 1.3.6 Thermal Transient Response.- 1.3.7 Linearity.- 1.3.8 Angular Dependence of Sensitivity.- 1.3.9 Leveling.- 1.3.10 Spectral Response.- 1.3.11 Stability.- 1.3.12 Pyranometer Sensitivity Function.- 1.4 Pyranometers.- 1.4.1 Clear-Sky Analysis.- 1.4.2 Installation of the Instrument.- 1.4.3 Thermopile Construction.- 1.4.4 Moisture.- 1.4.5 Deposition.- 1.4.6 Negative Values.- 1.4.7 Readings Which Exceed the Values for Extraterrestrial Insolation.- 1.4.8 Diffuse Solar Radiation.- 1.4.9 Shadowband Orientation.- 1.5 Pyrheliometers.- 1.5.1 Calibration.- 1.5.2 Temperature Correction.- 1.5.3 Spectral Measurements Using Broadband Filters.- 1.5.4 Time Constant of the Pyrheliometer.- 1.5.5 Tracking.- 1.5.6 Importance of the Solar Aureole.- 1.5.7 Pyrheliometer Tracker Wiring.- 1.5.8 Quality Control of Data.- 1.5.9 Solar Radiation Instruments.- 1.5.9.1 The Pyrheliometers.- 1.5.9.2 The Pyranometers.- 1.5.9.3 Duration of Sunshine Instruments.- Appendix 1.1 Historical Perspectives.- 1.1.1 Historical Perspectives—From Sundials to Satellites.- References.- 2 Environmental Requirements for Anaerobic Digestion of Biomass.- 2.1 Abstract.- 2.2 Introduction.- 2.3 Microbiology of Methanogens.- 2.3.1 Interspecies H2 Transfer.- 2.3.2 Methanogenic Reactions.- 2.3.3 Characteristics of Methanogenic Species in Pure Culture.- 2.3.4 Methanothrix Soehngenii.- 2.3.5 Biochemical Mechanisms and Pathways.- 2.3.6 Predominance of Species.- 2.3.7 Fermentative Bacteria.- 2.4 Nutrient Requirements.- 2.4.1 Nitrogen.- 2.4.2 Phosphorus.- 2.4.3 Sulfur.- 2.4.4 Trace Metals.- 2.5 Toxicity Response.- 2.5.1 Acclimation and Metabolism.- 2.5.2 Microbial Kinetics and Toxicity.- 2.5.3 Toxicity in Anaerobic Digestion Studies.- 2.6 Alkalinity.- 2.6.1 Alkalinity Concentration Required.- 2.6.2 Choice of Purchased Alkalinity.- 2.7 Modeling of the Anaerobic Digestion Process.- 2.7.1 Cellular Synthesis of Organic Substrate.- 2.7.2 Rate-Limiting Step in Anaerobic Digestion.- 2.7.2.1 Lipids and Acetate.- 2.7.2.2 Cellulose.- 2.7.3 Kinetics.- 2.7.4 Stoichiometry.- 2.7.5 Calculations of Methane Production.- 2.8 Design Prerequisites.- 2.8.1 Solids Concentration in Feed Sludge.- 2.8.2 Batch versus Continuous Feeding.- 2.8.3 Plug Flow versus CSTR.- 2.8.4 Temperature.- 2.8.5 Process Configuration.- 2.8.6 Soluble versus Sludge Feedstocks.- 2.8.7 Industrial Wastewaters Treated by Methane Fermentation.- 2.8.8 Screening Studies.- 2.8.9 Scale-Up Factors Affecting Performance.- 2.9 Future Directions.- References.- 3 Principles and Technology of Biomass Gasification.- 3.1 Abstract.- 3.2 Introduction.- 3.2.1 History of Biomass Gasification.- 3.2.2 Major References on Biomass Gasification.- 3.2.3 Gasification Research Centers.- 3.2.4 Gasification Meetings.- 3.3 Gasifier Technology.- 3.3.1 Types of Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.1 Charcoal Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.2 Updraft Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.3 Downdraft Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.4 Fluidized Bed Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.5 Suspension Gasifiers.- 3.3.1.6 Other Gasifiers.- 3.3.2 Gasifier Systems.- 3.3.3 Gasifier System Specifications.- 3.3.4 Producer Gas Use and Gas Conditioning.- 3.4 Principles of Gasification.- 3.4.1 Gasifier Fuels.- 3.4.2 Biomass versus Coal Gasification.- 3.4.3 Chemistry of Biomass Gasification.- 3.4.4 Global Thermodynamics of Biomass Gasification.- 3.4.5 The Gasification Reactions.- 3.4.5.1 Solid and Gas Pyrolysis.- 3.4.5.2 Kinetics of Solid Pyrolysis Reactions.- 3.4.5.3 Kinetics of Biomass Vapor Pyrolysis Reactions.- 3.4.5.4 Mechanisms of Charcoal Gasification.- 3.4.5.5 Kinetics of Charcoal Gasification.- 3.4.6 Modeling of Gasifier Operation.- 3.4.6.1 Updraft Gasifier Modeling.- 3.4.6.2 Downdraft Gasifier Modeling.- 3.4.6.3 Fluidized Bed Gasifier Modeling.- 3.4.6.4 Fast Pyrolysis Modeling.- 3.5 Conclusions.- 3.6 Acknowledgments.- Appendix 3.1 Units.- References.- 4 Biomass Pyrolysis: A Review of the Literature Part 2—Lignocellulose Pyrolysis.- 4.1 Abstract.- 4.2 Introduction.- 4.2.1 Scope.- 4.2.2 Goals.- 4.3 Pyrolysis of Carbohydrates.- 4.3.1 Low Temperature Phenomena.- 4.3.1.1 Products.- 4.3.1.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.3.2 Moderate Temperature Phenomena.- 4.3.2.1 Products.- 4.3.2.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.3.3 High Temperature Phenomena.- 4.3.3.1 Products.- 4.3.3.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.3.4 Effects of Various Parameters.- 4.3.5 Summary and Critique.- 4.4 Pyrolysis of Lignin.- 4.4.1 Low Temperature Phenomena.- 4.4.2 Moderate Temperature Phenomena.- 4.4.2.1 Products.- 4.4.2.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.4.3 High Temperature Phenomena.- 4.4.3.1 Products.- 4.4.3.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.4.4 Effects of Various Parameters.- 4.4.4.1 Heating Rate.- 4.4.4.2 Pressure.- 4.4.4.3 Particle Size.- 4.4.4.4 Additives.- 4.4.4.5 Pyrolysis Medium.- 4.4.5 Summary and Critique.- 4.5 Pyrolysis of Lignocellulosic Materials.- 4.5.1 Low Temperature Phenomena.- 4.5.2 Moderate Temperature Phenomena.- 4.5.2.1 Products.- 4.5.2.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.5.3 High Temperature Phenomena.- 4.5.3.1 Products.- 4.5.3.2 Mechanisms and Kinetics.- 4.5.4 Effects of Various Parameters.- 4.5.4.1 Heating Rate.- 4.5.4.2 Pressure.- 4.5.4.3 Particle Size.- 4.5.4.4 Gaseous Environment.- 4.5.4.5 Mineral Matter and Additives.- 4.5.5 Summary and Critique.- 4.6 Commercial Development.- 4.6.1 Generic Technologies.- 4.6.2 Generic Economics.- 4.6.3 State of the Art Reactors.- 4.6.3.1 Class I Reactors.- 4.6.3.2 Class II Reactors.- 4.6.3.3 Class III Reactors.- 4.6.3.4 Summary and Critique.- 4.7 Conclusions.- 4.8 Acknowledgments.- 4.9 Notation.- References.- 5 Thermal Comfort and Passive Design.- 5.1 Historical Notes.- 5.2 Physiological Basis.- 5.3 Summary.- 5.4 Empirical Studies.- 5.5 Analytical Work.- 5.6 The Bioclimatic Chart.- 5.7 Variability of Comfort.- 5.8 Psychological Extensions.- 5.9 Consequences.- 5.10 Behavioral and Clothing Differences.- 5.11 Acclimatization and Habit.- 5.12 Passive Heating Systems and Comfort.- 5.13 Summary.- 5.14 References.- 6 Earth Contact Buildings: Applications, Thermal Analysis and Energy Benefits.- 6.1 Abstract.- 6.2 Earth Contact Structures and Their Applicability.- 6.3 The General Advantages of Earth Contact Structures.- 6.3.1 Visual Impact /Aesthetics.- 6.3.2 Preservation of Surface Open Space.- 6.3.3 Land-Use Benefits.- 6.3.4 Environmental Benefits.- 6.3.5 Noise and Vibration.- 6.3.6 Maintenance.- 6.3.7 Fire Protection.- 6.3.8 Protection from Earthquakes.- 6.3.9 Suitability for Civil Defense.- 6.3.10 Storm and Tornado Protection.- 6.3.11 Security.- 6.3.12 Life Cycle Costs.- 6.4 Potential Benefits Related to Energy Conservation.- 6.4.1 Infiltration.- 6.4.2 Heat Loss.- 6.4.3 Cooling.- 6.4.4 Heat Gain.- 6.4.5 Daily Temperature Fluctuations.- 6.4.6 Seasonal Temperature Lag in Ground.- 6.5 Potential Limitations Related to Energy Conservation.- 6.5.1 Structural and Economic Limitations.- 6.5.2 Requirements for Openings.- 6.5.3 Slow Response.- 6.5.4 Ground Temperatures.- 6.5.5 Drawbacks of Seasonal Time Lag in Temperatures.- 6.5.6 Heating/Cooling Compromises.- 6.5.7 Condensation.- 6.5.8 Evapotranspiration.- 6.5.9 Indoor Air Quality.- 6.6 Application of Earth Contact Systems.- 6.6.1 Residential Structures.- 6.6.2 Nonresidential Structures.- 6.6.3 Clusters of Buildings Employing Earth Contact.- 6.6.4 Improved Exploitation of Earth Contact Potential.- 6.7 Thermal Analysis of Earth Contact Buildings.- 6.8 Examples of Current Earth Contact Analysis.- 6.8.1 Manual Methods.- 6.8.2 “Old ASHRAE” Method.- 6.8.3 Method of Elliot and Baker.- 6.8.4 Method of Boileau and Latta.- 6.8.5 Method of Wang.- 6.8.6 Method of Mitalas.- 6.8.7 F Factor Method.- 6.9 Investigations Using Computer Techniques.- 6.10 Example of a Detailed Computer Analysis.- 6.11 Future Research.- 6.11.1 Comprehensive, Integrated Energy Analysis.- 6.11.2 Analytical Models.- 6.11.3 Measurements of Earth Contact Heat Transfer.- 6.11.4 Earth Contact Configurations.- 6.12 Energy Performance Analysis for Components of Small Earth Contact Structures.- 6.13 General Description of Parametric Studies.- 6.14 Results and Highlights of Parametric Studies.- 6.14.1 Tucson, Arizona.- 6.14.1.1 Above Grade Cases.- 6.14.1.2 Fully Bermed Case.- 6.14.1.3 Earth Covered Case.- 6.14.1.4 Ground Surface Modifications.- 6.14.1.5 Two Story Case.- 6.14.1.6 Monthly Distribution.- 6.14.2 Columbus, Ohio.- 6.14.2.1 Above Grade Cases.- 6.14.2.2 Fully Bermed Case.- 6.14.2.3 Earth Covered Case with a Typical Wall Insulation.- 6.14.2.4 Earth Covered Case with Extended Roof Insulation.- 6.14.2.5 Two Story Earth Covered Case.- 6.14.3 Minneapolis, Minnesota.- 6.14.3.1 Above Grade Cases.- 6.14.3.2 Fully Bermed Case.- 6.14.3.3 Earth Covered Case.- 6.14.3.4 Earth Covered Case with Floor Insulation.- 6.14.3.5 Earth Covered Case with Extended Roof Insulation.- 6.14.3.6 Two Story Case.- 6.15 Limitations of Parametric Studies.- 6.16 Preliminary Conclusions.- 6.16.1 Building Configuration Considerations.- 6.16.2 Interior Surface Considerations.- 6.17 References.- 7 Testing Solar Collectors.- 7.1 Abstract.- 7.2 Introduction.- 7.3 Basic Equations Governing the Thermal Performance of Solar Collectors.- 7.3.1 Thermal Efficiency.- 7.3.2 Time Constant.- 7.3.3 Incident Angle Modifier.- 7.4 Testing Solar Collectors under Clear-Sky, Full-Irradiance Conditions.- 7.4.1 ASHRAE Standards.- 7.4.1.1 Time Constant Test.- 7.4.1.2 Thermal Efficiency Test.- 7.4.1.3 Incident Angle Modifier Test.- 7.4.1.4 Instrumentation.- 7.4.2 Shortcomings of the Assumed Collector Model.- 7.4.3 Comparability of Results from Outdoor Tests.- 7.4.4 Testing Concentrating Collectors.- 7.5 Testing Solar Collectors under Zero-Irradiance Conditions.- 7.6 Considerations in Testing Air Collectors.- 7.6.1 Air Leakage.- 7.6.2 Predicting Collector Array Performance from Tests on Modules.- 7.7 Calculating All-Day Collector Performance.- 7.7.1 Calculation Including Diffuse Solar Irradiance.- 7.7.2 SRCC Rating Calculation Methods.- 7.7.3 Effects of Diffuse Irradiance on Calculations.- 7.8 Nomenclature.- References.- 8 Concentrating Solar Collectors.- 8.1 Abstract.- 8.2 Introduction.- 8.3 Nontracking Concentrators.- 8.3.1 Compound Parabolic Concentrators.- 8.3.2 Reflectors for Evacuated Tubes.- 8.3.3 V-Troughs.- 8.3.4 Side Reflectors.- 8.4 Tracking Concentrators.- 8.4.1 Image Spread Due to Finite Width of the Sun and Optical Errors.- 8.4.2 Parabolic Reflectors.- 8.4.3 Fresnel Reflectors.- 8.4.4 Fresnel Lenses.- 8.4.5 Fixed Reflectors with Tracking Receivers.- 8.4.5.1 Spherical Reflectors.- 8.4.5.2 Circular Cylindrical Reflector with Tracking Receiver.- 8.4.5.3 Reflector Slats on Circular Cylindrical Mount.- 8.4.6 Concentrator Configurations for Low Cost Manufacture.- 8.4.7 Second-Stage Concentrators.- 8.5 Performance of Concentrating Collectors.- 8.5.1 Instantaneous Efficiency.- 8.5.2 Long-Term Average Performance.- 8.6 Practical Considerations.- 8.6.1 Absorber Coatings.- 8.6.2 Glazing.- 8.6.3 Reflector Materials.- 8.6.4 Other Materials.- 8.6.5 Collector Orientation.- 8.6.6 Cleaning.- 8.6.7 Tracking.- 8.7 Summary.- 8.8 References.