Handbook of Marriage and the Family, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 1987

The lucid, straightforward Preface of this Handbook by the two editors and the comprehenSIve perspec­ tives offered in the Introduction by one ofthem leave little for a Foreword to add. It is therefore limIted to two relevant but not intrinsically related points vis-a-vis research on marriage and the family in the interval since the fIrst Handbook (Christensen, 1964) appeared, namely: the impact on this research ofthe politicization of the New RIght! and of the Feminist Enlightenment beginning in the mid-sixties, about the time of the fIrst Handbook. In the late 1930s Willard Waller noted: "Fifty years or more ago about 1890, most people had the greatest respect for the institution called the family and wished to learn nothing whatever about it. . . . Everything that concerned the life of men and women and their children was shrouded from the light. Today much of that has been changed. Gone is the concealment of the way in which life begins, gone the irrational sanctity of the home. The aura of sentiment which once protected the family from discussion clings to it no more .... We wantto learn as much about it as we can and to understand it as thoroughly as possible, for there is a rising recognition in America that vast numbers of its families are sick-from internal frustrations and from external buffeting. We are engaged in the process of reconstructing our family institutions through criticism and discussion" (1938, pp. 3-4).

I Family Perspectives and Analyses.- 1 • Demography of the Family.- The Family Life Cycle.- Data.- Methods.- Age at Marriage.- Differentials in Age at Marriage.- Consequences.- Female Labor-Force Participation.- Female Labor: Demand and Supply.- Economic Necessity.- Occupations and Income.- Differences in Female Labor-Force Participation.- Consequences.- Fertility.- Trends in Number.- Trends in Timing.- Contraception and Birth Planning.- Illegitimacy.- Static versus Dynamic Perspectives.- Consequences.- Marital Disruption.- Differentials in Marital Disruption.- Consequences.- Remarriage.- Differentials in Remarriage.- Consequences.- Household Size and Composition.- Primary Individuals.- Living Arrangements of Children.- Cohabitation.- Consequences.- Summary.- References.- 2 • Historical Analysis of the Family.- Origins of the Field.- Family and Household Structure.- Kinship.- Family Development.- The Family Cycle.- The Life Course.- The Timing of Life Transitions.- Family Strategies.- History of the Family and the Understanding of Social Change.- References.- 3 • Comparative Perspectives.- The Method of Comparative Sociology.- Family Structure.- Industrialization and the Conjugal Family.- Kinship in Industrial Societies.- Historical Trends in Family Structure.- Family Systems in Nonindustrial Societies.- Marital Power.- Socialization.- Conclusions.- References.- 4 • The Rise of Family Theory: A Historical and Critical Analysis.- Emergence of the Received View of Family Theory.- Developments during the 1800s.- 1900-1950.- Family Theory since 1950.- Theory Construction.- Some Accomplishments of Family Theory.- Alternates to the Positivist View.- Philosophy of Science.- Hermeneutics.- The Postpositivist Future.- References.- 5 • Radical-Critical Theories.- Emergence of Radical-Critical Sociology.- Critical Theory.- Radical Structuralism.- Theoretical Schisms.- The Micro-Macro Issue.- The Positivist Issue.- Critical Views of Other Sociological Theories.- Divergences.- Convergences.- American Family Theory.- Substantive Applications.- Historical Totality versus Public-Private Dichotomy.- The Politics of Sexuality.- Summary.- Critiques of Conventional Family Sociology.- Guidelines for a Radical-Critical Family Sociology.- The Radical-Critical Perspective.- References.- 6 • Methodology.- The Nature of the Family as a Small Group.- Implications for Conceptualization.- Implications for Research Design.- Implications for Data Collection.- Implications for Data Analysis.- The Time-Ordered Nature of the Family.- Implications for Conceptualization.- Implications for Research Design.- Implications for Data Collection.- Implications for Data Analysis.- The Private and Value-Laden Nature of the Family.- Implications for Conceptualization.- Implications for Research Design.- Implications for Data Collection.- Implications for Data Analysis.- The Family as Part of a Larger Social System.- Comparative Analysis.- Transactional Analysis.- General Methodological Issues.- Conceptualization: Interaction between Theory and Research.- Research Design Issues.- Data Collection Issues.- Conclusions.- References.- 7 • A Perspective on Tomorrow’s Families.- Family Definitions.- The Family as an Ideological Abstraction.- The Family as a Romantic Image.- The Family as a Unit of Treatment.- The Family as a Last Resort.- The Family as a Process.- The Family in Networks.- Implications of Definitions for the Future of the Family.- Assessing the Potential for Change in the Family.- The Future as the Setting for Families.- Imagination and Images.- Progress and Change.- Pluralism versus Single Ideologies.- Invention and Innovation.- Planning and Strategies.- Family Substitutes, Alternatives, and Varieties.- Deinstitutionalization versus Institutional Substitutes.- Medical Alternatives.- Educational Alternatives.- Child-Care Alternatives.- Elder-Care Alternatives.- Criminal Justice and Deviant-Behavior-Care Alternatives.- Blood versus Emotional Ties: Variations in Family Structure.- Regional and Ethnic Subcultural Variations versus National Cultural Uniformity.- Transitions in Lifestyle over the Life Course.- Prevalence and Durability of Various Family Types and Individual Lifestyles.- Family Dynamics: Intimacy, Involvement, and Conflict.- Models for Describing the Futures of Families.- Areas of Choice and Social Processes.- Linking Families to Other Institutions and Potentiality for Change.- References.- II Diversity in Family Life.- 8 • Ethnicity.- Definitions.- Rationale for Study Period.- Demographic Patterns.- Population Distributions.- Regional Variations.- Size and Composition.- Age Distributions.- One-Parent Structures.- Family History and Culture.- American Indians.- Puerto Ricans.- Mexican-Americans.- Kinship Relationships.- Hispanics.- Afro-Americans.- Asian-Americans.- American Indians.- Marital Patterns.- Asian-Americans.- Afro-Americans.- American Indians.- Hispanics.- Socioeconomic Characteristics.- Family Income.- Educational Attainment.- Occupational Status.- Themes in the Literature: Changing Historical Perspectives.- Hispanics.- American Indians.- Asian-Americans.- Afro-Americans.- Research Priorities.- Status of Women.- Health.- Summary.- References.- 9 • Social Stratification.- Theories of Stratification.- The Marxist Perspective.- Critical Theories of Social Class and Family.- The Weberian Perspective.- Functionalism.- Measuring Social Class.- Gender Bias.- Status Inconsistency.- Measuring Social Class: An Unresolved Problem.- Social Class and Family Life in Historical Perspective.- Social Status and the Changing Role of Women.- Black Families and Immigrant Families.- The Functionalist View of the Twentieth-Century Family.- An Examination of Social Status and Family Life.- Upper-Class Families.- Lower-Upper-Class Families.- Upper-Middle-Class Families.- Lower-Middle-Class Families.- Working-Class Families.- Lower-Class Families.- Status, Sex, and Marriage.- Socialization and Social Status.- Social Status, Occupational Role, and Socialization.- Socialization Techniques.- Parent-Child Relationships.- Cognitive Development and Social Class.- Socialization, Personality, and Social Status.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 10 • Families and Work.- Setting the Context.- Theoretical Context.- Historical Context.- Recent Social Trends.- Conclusion.- Structural Links between Work and Family Systems.- Work Time and Family Relations.- Occupational Resources and Marriage.- Individuals at the Interface.- Job Satisfaction and Strain.- Occupational Conditions, Values, and Socialization.- Summary and Discussion.- Critical Events.- The Consequences of Job Loss.- Summary and Discussion.- Concluding Remarks.- Theoretical Directions.- Methodological Directions.- Directions for Further Research.- References.- 11 • Families and Religions.- Synthesized Religion.- Synthesis and Syncretism.- The Movement toward Synthesis.- Family, Synthesis, and Selectivity.- Synthesis, Family Transmission, and Religious Change.- Continuity and Discontinuity.- Cults and Continuity.- Cults and Families.- The Family and Susceptibility to Cults.- Evangelizing in the Media.- Evangelism and Women.- Feminists and the Churches.- Women’s Purity: The Family Connection.- Conclusion.- References.- 12 • Nontraditional Family Forms.- Never-Married Singlehood.- Nonmarital Heterosexual Cohabitation.- Voluntary Childlessness.- Characteristics of Persons Who Decide Not to Have Children.- The Decision to Remain Childfree.- Consequences of Voluntary Childlessness.- The Binuclear Family, Coparenting, and Joint Custody.- The Stepfamily.- The Single-Parent Family.- Open Marriage and the Open Family.- Dual-Career Families and Commuter Marriages.- Dual-Career Families.- Commuter Marriages.- Extramarital Sex.- General.- Swinging.- Sexually Open Marriage.- Coprimary Relationships.- Same-Sex Relationships.- Multiadult Households.- Multilateral Marriage.- Communes and Intentional Communities.- Where to from Here.- Conclusions.- References.- 13 • Singlehood.- Never-Married Americans: Characteristics.- Never-Married Americans: A Typological Approach.- Never-Married Americans: Well-Being.- Never-Married and Married Americans: Comparative Well-Being.- Never-Married Americans: Coping Mechanisms.- Permissive Social Attitudes.- Same-Sex Friendships.- Marriage-Deriding Attitudes.- Assertive Attitudes.- Dating Aids.- Prosingle Options.- Summary.- Social Policy Options.- Summary.- References.- 14 • Voluntary Childlessness.- Defining Childlessness.- Voluntary or Involuntary Childlessness.- Permanent or Temporary Childlessness.- Early Articulators or Postponers.- Operational Definitions of Voluntary Childlessness.- Additional Methodological Considerations in Sample Selection.- Childlessness: Incidence and Trends.- Incidence.- Trends.- “Wives” versus “Reporting Women”.- Statements of Motive for Voluntary Childlessness.- Specific Rationales for Voluntary Childlessness.- Methodological Considerations.- Correlates of Voluntary Childlessness.- Birth Order.- Family Background.- Autonomy.- Achievement.- Marital Adjustment and Divorce.- Religion.- Other Assorted Demographic Characteristics.- The Decision to Remain Voluntarily Childless.- Timing of the Childless Decision.- Who Is Responsible for Initiating the Childless Decision?.- Gaining the Spouse’s Acceptance.- Commitment to the Childless Decision.- Voluntary Childlessness: Deviance or Conformity.- How Are the Voluntarily Childless Viewed by Society at Large?.- Awareness of Pressures and Sanctions.- Concern about Pressures and Sanctions.- A Normative versus a Structural Explanation of Voluntary Childlessness.- Future Needs in the Study of Voluntary Childlessness.- Methodological Problems.- Theoretical Problems.- References.- 15 • Single-Parent Families.- Demographic Profile.- The Dimensions of Family Life.- Is the Single-Parent Family a Family?.- Are Single-Parent Families Different from Two-Parent Families?.- A Typology of Single-Parent Families and Two-Parent Families.- The Making of Single Parenthood.- Macroenvironment: Major Social Institutions.- Single Mothers.- Single Fathers.- Microenvironment: The Community.- Change in Social Relationships.- Effects of Support on the Single-Parent Family.- Microenvironment: Single-Parent Family Relations.- The Research Tradition.- New Research Direction.- Effects on Children.- Effects on Parents.- Discussion.- References.- 16 • Remarriage and Reconstituted Families.- Cross-Cultural and Historical Perspectives.- Research History and Definitions.- Demography of American Remarriage.- U.S. Marriage in Relation to That in Other Societies.- U.S. Remarriage Rates.- Antecedents of Remarriage.- Timing of Remarriage.- Factors Associated with Remarriage.- Children and Remarriage.- Age Differences in Remarriage.- Parenting and Stepparenting.- Stability of Remarriages.- Summary of Recent Literature.- The Transition to Remarriage.- Remarriage and Well-Being.- Children in Reconstituted Families.- Remarriage and Generational Ties.- Conceptual Issues in the Study of Remarriage.- Perspective for the Future.- References.- III Life Cycle Processes.- 17 • Life Cycle and Family Development.- Introduction: The Family Development Perspective.- A Historical Overview of the Perspective.- Major Concepts of the Family Development Perspective.- Systemic Concepts.- Structural Concepts.- Concepts of Orderly Sequence.- Facets of Family Dynamics.- What Is Development for the Family as an Organization?.- Definition of Family Development.- Operationalizing the Family Career.- A Statistical Overview of Family Development.- Testing the Developmental Model.- Fruitfulness of the Developmental Perspective for Orienting Family Research and Practice.- Family-Development Theory-Building and Research.- Clinical Applications.- Social Policy Applications.- Criticisms of the Family Development Perspective.- A Single Modal Life Cycle.- Timing of Critical Life Events.- The Interaction Effect of Other Careers.- Lack of Correlation with Other Measures.- Prospects for the Future.- References.- 18 • Parent-Child Socialization.- Symbolic Interaction and the Parent-Child Dyad.- The Social Mold Tradition.- Parental Characteristics and Child Outcomes.- The Larger Social Contexts of the Social Mold Tradition.- Bidirectional-Systemic Models.- Child Effects Research.- Parent-Child Reciprocity.- Attachment.- The Systemic Context and Parent-Child Socialization.- Critique of Bidirectional-Systemic Models.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 19 • Human Sexuality.- Orientation.- Sexual Development from Conception to Adolescence.- Early Sexual Development and Gender Identity.- The Sexual Orientation Spectrum.- How Individuals Develop the Self as a Healthy Sexual Person.- Affectional Potentials: Causal Relations between Self-image, Nurturance, Body Pleasure, and Violence.- The Development of Moral Awareness.- Social Factors in Scripting for Sexual Development, Values, and Roles.- Socioeconomic Classes and Sexual Values.- Ethnic Differences and Sexual Values.- The Shifting Sex Ratio.- Variations in Religious Sexual Values.- Historical Developments in American Culture.- The Impact of Negative Learning on Sexual Aversion, Desire, Problems, and Dysfunctions.- Physiological Causes of Sexual Dysfunction.- Sexual Therapies.- Trends and Projections.- Clinical Implications and Research Suggestions.- References.- 20 • Development of Gender Roles.- Terminology.- “Instrumental” and “Expressive” Roles.- The Evolution of “Traditional” Gender Roles.- A Short History of Gender-Role Differentiation.- Women and Men in Industrialized Western Societies.- Women and Men in the Late Twentieth Century.- Productive Labor.- Economic Rewards.- Educational Training.- Men, Women, and Family Life.- Values about the Family.- Housework.- Marriage, Divorce, and Birth Rates.- Changing Attitudes and Stereotypes about Women and Men.- Summing Up: The Societal Roles of Women and Men.- A Warning: The “Socialization Copout” Perspective.- Children and Gender Typing: An Overview.- Perpetuating Sex Differences and Gender Roles.- Direct Training for Gender Roles and Sex Differences.- Imitation and Modeling.- Gender Identity and Parental Identification.- Cognitive Development and Gender Identity.- The Nature-Nurture Controversy.- The Case for Adult Learning.- A Caveat: Traditional Gender Roles Can Be Hazardous to Your Health.- Gender and the Family: Some Hints for the Future.- References.- 21 • Marriage, Family, and Fertility.- Selected Examples of Marriage, Family, and Fertility Patterns.- Basic Fertility Concepts.- Trends in Fertility.- Fertility Trends in the United States.- Fertility Trends in Advanced Societies.- Fertility Trends in Developing Countries.- Summary of Fertility Trends.- Linkages among Marriage, Family, and Fertility.- Lineage or Family-of-Orientation Effects on Fertility.- Family Events as Intermediate Variables Affecting Fertility.- Fertility Control and Regulation.- The Use of Family-Planning Clinics and Services.- Factors Related to Contraceptive Use.- Summary of Fertility Control and Regulation.- Values of Children and Motivations for Childbearing.- Pronatalism and Antinatalism.- Satisfactions and Costs of Children.- Contemporary Issues in Fertility and the Family.- Teenage Pregnancy and Fertility.- Women’s Roles and Fertility.- Summary and Conclusions.- References.- 22 • Divorce.- Context.- Trends and Societal Changes.- Theoretical Context.- Structural and Perceptual Correlates.- Socioeconomic Status.- Age at Marriage.- Premarital Pregnancy.- Race.- Religion.- Intergenerational Transmission.- Geographic Location.- Children.- Couples’ Perceptions of the Reasons for Divorce.- Consequences and Adjustment: Adults.- Physical and Mental Health.- Psychological and Emotional Consequences.- Economic Consequences.- Other Consequences.- Adjustment: Research Findings.- Consequences and Adjustment: Children.- Consequences.- Effect of Family Conflict.- Legal Aspects.- Impact on Adults.- Impact on Children.- Conclusions.- Theoretical and Methodological Problems.- References.- 23 • The Family in Later Years.- The Macrosocial Context of Aging Families.- The Demographic Revolution: Longer Lives, Falling Fertility.- Work and Welfare in Old Age.- Late-Life Living Arrangements.- The Generation in the Middle.- Microsocial Perspectives on Aging Families.- Intergenerational Relations: Solidarity in the Aging Family.- Marital Relations in Old Age: Marriage and Its Alternatives.- Intervention Perspectives: Older Families in Trouble.- Burdens of Family Caregiving to the Elderly.- Public Policy Pressures: The Changing Context of Family Life.- Conclusion.- References.- IV Family Dynamics and Transformation.- 24 • Family Power.- Conceptual and Methodological Issues in Family Power Studies.- Definition and Conceptualization of Power.- Dimensions of Power Relations: Descriptive and Explanatory Power Analysis.- Methodological Issues.- Intentionality and Effectiveness.- Toward an Explanatory Analysis of Family Power Relations.- Structural Context.- Group and Member Characteristics.- Situational Contingencies.- Power Exertion Processes.- Control Outcomes.- Consequences of Control Processes.- Conclusion.- Some Guidelines for Future Research.- Suggestions for Measurement.- Alternative Approaches to Family Power.- References.- 25 • Family Stress.- Introduction: Family Vulnerabilities and Strengths.- Historical Overview of Literature on Family Stress.- Crisis Model of Family Stress.- ABC-X Model of Family Stress.- The Stressor Event: The A Factor.- Stress, Crisis, and Strain: The X Factor Redefined.- Coping Theory and Research: A Shift in Emphasis from Crisis to Invulnerability in Families. 701 Family Boundary Ambiguity: A New Construct for Understanding the Stress Process— Potential Interplay between A and C Factors.- Review of Boundary Ambiguity Research and Theory Development Project.- The Family’s Values and Belief System: An Influence on all Factors.- Conclusion.- References.- 26 • Family Violence: Past, Present, and Future.- A Historical Perspective.- Wife Abuse.- Husband Abuse.- Child Abuse,.- Elder Abuse.- The Level of Violence in Families.- A Definition of Violence.- Methodological Problems.- Are We More Violent Today?.- Marital Violence.- Parent-Child Violence.- Parent Abuse.- Violence between Siblings.- Abuse of the Elderly.- Variables and Theories.- Intraindividual Theories and Variables.- Mental Illness.- Mental Retardation and Neurological Dysfunction.- Premature Infants.- Social-Psychological Theories.- Frustration-Aggression Theory.- Social-Learning and Role-Modeling Theories.- Symbolic Interaction Theory.- Exchange and Resource Theory.- Conflict Theory.- Variables Used in Social-Psychological Theories.- Alcohol.- Age and Stage in the Life Cycle.- Social Class.- Sociocultural Theories.- Systems Theory.- Functional Theory.- Structural Theory.- Cultural Theory.- Marxist Theory.- Feminist Theory.- Variables Used in Sociocultural Theories.- Ethnic Comparisons within the United States.- A Cycle of Violence.- Models.- Conclusion.- References.- 27 • Family and the Law.- Origins of American Family Law.- From Contract to Status.- Effect of Religion on U.S. Marriage and Divorce Laws.- Separation of Church and State.- From Status to Contract.- Sex Equality and Its Impact on Family Law.- Subordination of Women.- The Cult of Motherhood.- Women’s Rights to Property.- The Emergence of the Women’s Movement.- Impact of the Law on the American Family.- The Law as It Reflects Myths about the Family.- Constitutional Protection of Family Rights.- The State’s Interest in Marriage.- The Right to Marry.- Marital Right to Privacy.- Reproductive Freedom and the Right to Privacy.- Child Rearing and the State’s Interest.- Limits on Constitutional Rights.- Support Obligations in Marriage.- Limits on Rights to Marital Sexual Privacy.- Lack of Equal Protection for Homosexual Marriages.- Issues Governed Primarily by State Decisions and Statutes.- Divorce.- Child Support.- Child Custody.- Parental Abuse of Children.- Termination of Parental Rights.- Interracial Adoption.- Foster Care.- Elder Abuse.- Marital Rape.- Impact of Variant Family Forms.- Summary: New Directions in Family Law.- Judicial Discretion.- From Status to Contract Revisited.- Occupation as a Status Determinant.- Conflict of Values.- Forecast.- References.- 28. Families and Social Policy.- Approaches to Family Policy.- Alternative Definitions.- Family Policy in the United States.- Families, Policies, and Social Change.- Why the Focus on Families?.- Historical and Political Perspectives.- In the Family Interest.- Family Policy: Possible Directions.- Family Policies: Three Case Studies.- Income-Support and Employment Policies.- Social Security for the Aged.- Workplace Policies for Parents: An Emerging Policy.- Evaluating Policies: The Role of Social Science Research.- Family Impact Analysis.- The Development of Family Indicators of Well-Being.- Social Science Research and Policy Development.- Forecasts for the Future.- Family Impact Analysis as a Sensitizing Device.- Opportunities for Family Policies.- Outlook for Families.- References.- 29 • Family Life Education.- The Scope and Focus of Family Life Education.- Scope of Family Life Education.- Definition of Family Life Education.- A Conceptual Framework for Family Life Education: An Ecosystem Approach.- Components of the Family Ecosystem Model.- Application of the Family Ecosystem Approach to Family Life Education.- The Family as Educator.- Family Life Education: Public or Private Issue?.- Issues in the Dissemination of Family Life Education.- Program Evaluation.- Teacher Preparation.- Teacher Certification.- Changing Concerns and Transitions within Family Life Education.- Challenges for the Future.- References.- 30 • Marital and Family Therapy.- Setting the Stage: A Historical Scenario.- From Marriage Counseling to Marital Therapy.- Family Therapy: A Grand Entrance.- The “Major” Schools of Marital and Family Therapy.- Overview of Conceptual Models.- Commonalities among the Theories.- Understanding Family Therapy: Toward an Integration of Concepts.- Toward an Integration of Concepts: A Current and Future Perspective.- An Integrative, Diaclectic, or Multimodal Model.- References.- Notes on Contributors.