Plasma Science and Technology for Emerging Economies, Softcover reprint of the original 1st ed. 2017
An AAAPT Experience

1: Asian African Association for Plasma Training (AAAPT) – History, network and plasma activities
1.    Introduction to AAAPT Network
2.    History of AAAPT
3.    Promotion of Plasma Science and Technology Activities under AAAPT: Some Examples
4.    AAAPT Success Stories
5.    AAAPT Network Activities
6.    Future of AAAPT

2: Dense Plasma Focus – High Energy Density Pulsed Plasma Device a Novel Facility for Material Processing and Synthesis
1.    Plasmas for Material Processing and Synthesis
1.1    Low temperature plasmas for material processing and synthesis
1.2    High temperature plasmas for material processing and synthesis
2.    Introduction to Dense Plasma Focus (DPF) Device
2.1    Device details,
2.2    Principle of operation,
2.3    Key characteristics of DPF device
3.    Material Processing using Dense Plasma Focus Device
3.1    Selective examples of material processing
3.2    Material processing mechanism in Dense Plasma Focus device
3.3    Feature, challenges and scope
4.    Novel material synthesis using Dense Plasma Focus Device
4.1    Selective examples of novel nanophase material syntheses
4.2    Understanding mechanism novel nanophase material syntheses in DPF
4.3    Feature, challenges and scope
5.    Universality and Scalability of DPF devices for material processing and synthesis
6.    Conclusions
7.    References

3: Numerical Experiments of the Plasma Focus- the AAAPT Experience
1.    Introduction
1.1    The plasma focus
1.2    Review Models and simulation
1.3    Review Modelling neutron yield
1.4    A universal code for numerical experiments of the plasma focus
2.    Lee Model code
2.1    The Strong Physics Foundation and Wide-ranging Applications of the Code
2.2    The Five Phases of the Plasma Focus
2.3    The Equations of the five phases
2.3.1    Axial Phase- snowplow model
2.3.1.1    Equation of motion
2.3.1.2    Circuit equation
2.3.1.3    Normalising the equations for scaling parameters
2.3.1.4    Voltage across the input terminals
2.3.1.5    Integration scheme for the two coupled equations
2.3.2    Radial Inward Shock Phase- elongating slug model
2.3.2.1    Equation of motion of shock front
2.3.2.2    Equation of motion of elongation
2.3.2.3    Equation of piston  motion
2.3.2.4    Circuit equation
2.3.2.5    Normalising the equations for scaling parameters
2.3.2.6    Voltage across the input terminals
2.3.2.7    Integrating scheme for the four coupled equations
2.3.2.8    Correction for finite acoustic speed
2.3.3    Radial Reflected Shock Phase
2.3.3.1    Reflected shock speed
2.3.3.2    Piston speed
2.3.3.3    Elongation speed
2.3.3.4    Circuit equation
2.3.3.5    Circuit equation
2.3.3.6    Tube voltage
2.3.4    Radiative Pinch Phase
2.3.4.1    Radiation-coupled piston speed equation
2.3.4.2    Calculation of Joule heating3.4.3    Calculation of radiation
2.3.4.4    Plasma Self-Absorption and Transition from Volumetric to Surface Emission
2.3.4.5    Neutron yield- Thermonuclear and Beam-Plasma Target components
2.3.4.6    Column Elongation
2.3.4.7    Circuit Equation
2.3.4.8    Voltage across tube terminals
2.3.4.9    Pinch Phase dynamics and Yields of Neutrons, Soft X-rays, Fast Ion Beams and Fast Plasma Stream
2.3.5    Expanded Column Axial Phase
2.3.6    Outputs of the code
2.4    Procedure for using the Code- Fitting computed current trace to measured current trace
2.5    Adding a 6th Phase- a Transition Phase 4a between the Pinch Phase and the Expanded   Column Axial Phase   
2.5.1    The 5-Phase Model is Adequate for Low Inductance Plasma Focus Machine
2.5.2    The 5-Phase Model in Not Adequate for High Inductance Plasma Focus                                                               Machines
2.5.3    Factors Distinguishing the Two Types of Plasma Focus Devices
2.5.4    Fitting the 6th phase with anomalous resistances
3.    Scaling Properties of the Plasma Focus arising from the Numerical Experiments
3.1    Range of Plasma Focus Machines
3.2    Scaling Properties (mainly Axial Phase):  Peak Current Ipeak, Anode Radius ‘a’, Ipeak/a, Speed Factor S, Peak Axial Speed, Energy per unit Mass
3.3    Scaling Properties (mainly Radial Phase): Radial Shock and Piston Speeds, Pinch Temperatures, Dimensions and Lifetimes of the Plasma Focus Pinch
3.4    Scaling Properties: Rules of Thumb
3.5    Designing an efficient Plasma Focus: Rules of Thumb
4.    Insights and Scaling Laws of the Plasma Focus arising from the Numerical Experiments
4.1    The code as reference for diagnostics
4.2    Pinch Current limitation as Static Inductance L0 is Reduced-Optimum L0
4.3    Radiation Yield Limitations as Static Inductance L0 is Reduced
4.4    Scaling Laws for neutron from Numerical Experiments as Functions of Storage Energy E0, Peak Current Ip and Pinch Current Ipinch
4.5    Scaling Laws for SXR for several gases from Numerical Experiments as Functions of E0, Ipeak and Ipinch
4.6    Scaling Laws for Fast Ion Beams and Fast Plasma Streams from Numerical Experiments
4.7    Neutron Saturation as a Misnomer for Deterioration of Neutron Scaling at high E0
4.8    Deterioration of radiation scaling at high E0.
5.    Radiative Collapse
5.1    Power balance and Pease-Braginskii currents
5.2    Line radiation and the reduced Pease-Braginskii currents for High Z-gases
5.3    Characteristic Pinch Energy Depletion Times for Various Gases
5.4    Prediction of Radiation-enhanced compressions in Helium and Nitrogen and of Radiative Collapse in Neon, Argon, Krypton and Xenon with detailed correlated results of Numerical Experiments using the Lee Code.
6.    Conclusion
7.    References

4: X-ray Diagnostics of Pulsed Plasmas using Filtered Detectors
1.    Introduction
1.1    X-ray sources – traditional and plasma
1.2    X-ray detectors – Spectral, spatial and temporal resolution
1.3    X-ray production mechanisms
1.4    Filter and detector absorption mechanisms
2.    Experimental setup
2.1    Detector - determination of detector active layer
2.2    Choice of filters
2.3    Construction of detector housing
2.4    Debris mitigation
3.    Analysis method
3.1    Ross-filter method
3.2    Calculation of expected detector signals based on known spectra
3.3    The inverse problem: calculating the spectra from detector signals
3.4    Error analysis
4.    Summary and Conclusion
5.    Acknowledgements
6.    References


5: Pulsed Plasma Sources for X-ray Microscopy and Lithography Applications
1.    Introduction
1.1    Pinch plasma x-ray sources
1.2    X-ray production and evaluation mechanisms
1.3    Output energy and conversion efficiency
1.4    Plasma source size, stability and scaling parameters
2.    Pinch plasma sources for x-ray microscopy
2.1.    Soft x-ray radiography
2.2.    Hard x-ray radiography
2.3.    X-ray microscopy of living biological specimen
3.    Plasma focus as x-ray source for lithography
3.1.    Repetitive mode of operation
3.2.    13-nm x-ray lithography applications
3.3.    Lifetime limitations – debris, heat and plasma radiation
3.4.    Plasma simulation – tools for source optimization
4.    Summary and Conclusion
5.    Acknowledgements
6.    References


6: Neutron & Proton Diagnostics for Pulsed Plasma Fusion Devices
1.    Introduction
1.1    Fusion Reactions in Plasmas
1.2    Reaction Cross-sections and Kinematics
1.3    Particle Anisotropy and Energy
1.4    Neutron Interactions and Moderation
1.5    Protons in Matter:
1.6    Overview of Neutron & Proton Detectors
1.7    Polymer Nuclear Track Detectors
2.    Neutron Diagnostics
2.1    Thermal Neutron Detectors
2.2    Fast Neutron detectors
2.3    Fluence Anisotropy Measurements
2.4    Neutron Energy Measurements
2.5    Energy Spectroscopy Based on Time-of-Flight
2.6    Monte Carlo Simulation for Neutron Diagnostics
3.    Proton Diagnostics
3.1    Proton Stopping-Power and Range
3.2    Energy Spectroscopy based on Range
3.3    Proton Imaging of the Fusion Source
3.4    Coded Aperture Imaging
4.    Conclusion
5.    Acknowledgement
6.    References


7: Hard Tribological Coatings using Plasma Focus Device
1.    Introduction
2.    Studies of ions emitted from plasma focus
3.    Plasma focus device in materials processing
4.    Deposition of nitride and carbide coatings
5.    Experimental details
6.    Deposition of hard coatings and their characterization
6.1    Growth of TiAlN coatings
6.2    Nitriding of Zr
6.3    Growth of ZrON
6.4    Growth of nanocrystalline ZrAlON
6.5    Role of annealing on ZrON
6.6    Growth and annealing of Zirconia
6.7    Deposition of zirconium carbonitride composite films
6.8    Mechanical properties of nanocomposite Al/a-C
6.9    Hard TiCx/SiC/a-C:H nanocomposite thin films
7.    Summary and future prospects


8: Cost Effective Plasma Experiments for Developing Countries
1.    Introduction - literature review and justification of the important of cost-effectiveness.
2.    Devices operated at low to atmospheric pressure and low frequencies
2.1    Operation, characterization of a 50 Hz glow discharge
2.1.1    Application of the 50 Hz glow discharge for surface modification to enhance adhesiveness of copper platting on polymer substract
2.1.2    Application of of the 50 Hz glow discharge for surface modification of bio materials to improve uniformity of cell growth
2.2    Operation, characterization and applications of atmospheric pressure dielectric barrier discharge
2.2.1    The various configurations of DBD - Parallel and coaxial electrodes; plasma jet
2.2.2    Atmospheric pressure DBD as gaseous reactor for treatment of exhaust gas
3.    Pulsed devices
3.1    Vacuum spark discharge and flash X-ray tubes
3.1.1    Principle of operation
3.1.2    X-ray emission mechanism and characteristics
3.1.3    Applications
3.2    Wire explosion system for synthesis of nano particles
3.2.1    Principle of operation, mechanism of nano particles formation
3.2.2    Effects of various operating conditions on nano particle formation
3.3    Pulsed capillary discharge as cost effective EUV source
3.3.1    Principle of operation
3.3.2    EUV emission mechanism and characteristics
4.    Conclusion
5.    References

9: Pulsed dc and RF plasmas-Physics and applications
1.  ;;  Introduction
2.    Pulsed dc plasma nitriding
2.1    Fundamentals
2.2    Experimental setup
2.3    Influence of reactor design
2.4    Influence of processing parameters
2.5    Plasma nitriding of steels
3.    Pulsed dc plasma sterilization
3.1    Fundamentals
3.2    Experimental setup
3.3    Influence of reactor design
3.4    Gas temperature -Issues and solutions
3.5    Influence of processing gas
4.    RF discharge for surface modification
4.1    Fundamentals
4.2    Experimental setup
4.3    E-H transition
4.4    Plasma nitriding
4.5    Plasma treatment of CNTs
5.    Conclusions

10: Radio Frequency Inductively Coupled Plasmas: Fundamentals & Applications
1.    Introduction
1.1    History and Development
1.2    Capacitively Coupled Plasmas (CCP) vs. Inductively Coupled Plasmas (ICP)
2.    Fundamentals
2.1    Configurations of inductive source
2.2    Impedance Matching Network
2.3    Modes of Operation and Hysteresis
2.4    Power Balance and Deposition
2.5    Electromagnetic Field Distributions
2.6    Electron Density and Electron Temperature Distributions
2.7    Neutral Gas Heating and Neutral Depletion
3.    Applications
3.1    Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition (PECVD)
3.2    Reactive Ion Etching (RIE)
3.3    Nitriding of Metals
4.    Summary
5.    References
11: Low pressure RF and microwave plasmas and their applications
1.    Low pressure RF plasmas
1.1    Introduction
1.2    Power supplies
1.2.1    kHz range power supplies
1.2.2    MHz range power supplies
1.3    CCP setup and its applications
1.4    ICP setup and its applications
1.5    Magnetron plasmas sputtering setup and its applications
1.6    Helicon plasmas setup and its applications
2.    Low pressure microwave plasmas
2.1    Magnetron and its power supply
2.2    Waveguide and stub tuner
2.3    Microwave power measurement and calibration
2.4    MIP setup and its applications
2.5    ECR setup and its applications

12: Plasma polymerization: Electronics and Biomedical Applications
1.    Introduction to Plasma Polymerization
2.    Different plasma polymerization techniques using RF, AC and DC  plasma discharge
3.    RF Plasma polymerization for thin film fabrication
4.    Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapour Deposition
5.    Plasma polymerized thin films for electronics applications
6.    Plasma Polymerized thin films for biomedical applications

13: Cold Atmospheric Plasma Sources – An upcoming Innovation in Plasma Medicine
1.    Introduction
2.    Cold Atmospheric Plasmas (CAP): principle and design
3.    Characteristics of CAP source
3.1    Electric power in CAP
3.2    Radicals and UV determination
4.    CAP case studies
4.1    Microbial biofilm
4.2    Infected wound
5.    Future and trend
6.    Conclusion
14: Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) Plasmas and Their Applications
1.    Introduction
2.    DBD plasma as an emerging technology
3.    Application of gas discharge plasma for materials processing
3.1    Low pressure  glow discharge
3.1.1    DC discharge
3.1.2    RF discharge
3.1.3    MW discharge
3.2    Corona discharge
3.3    Arc discharge
3.3    Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD)
3.4    Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharge (APGD)
3.5    Surface Discharge (SD)
4.    DBD plasmas
4.1    Experimental details
4.2    Principle and operation
4.3    Types of  DBD plasma systems
4.3.1    Parallel- plate electrode system
4.3.2    Cylindrical electrode system
4.3.3    Annular electrode system
4.4    Application of DBD plasmas
4.4.1    Ozone generation
4.4.2    Pollution control
4.4.3    Material processing- Polymer surface modification
5.    Summary
6.    References

15:  Research on IR-T1 Tokamak
1.    Introduction
2.    Tokamak
2.1    IR-T1 Tokamak
2.1.1    Biasing system in IR-T1 Tokamak
2.1.2    Resonant Helical Magnetic Field (RHF) in IR-T1 Tokamak
3.    Plasma Diagnostics in IR-T1 Tokamak
3.1    Magnetic Diagnostics<3.1.1    Rogowgski Coil
3.1.2    Loop Voltage
3.1.3    Magnetic Probes
3.2    Electrical Probes
3.2.1    Principle of Langmuir Probe Operation
3.2.2    Single Langmuir Probe
3.2.3    Ball-Pen Probe
3.2.4    Emisive Probe
3.2.5    Mach Probe
3.3    The Investigation of Biasing and RHF Effects on IR-T1 Plasma Parameters using Langmuir Ball-Pen and Multi-Purpose Probes
4.    Plasma-Material Interaction
4.1    Material Erosion
4.1.1    Physical Sputtering
4.1.2    Chemical Sputtering
4.1.3    Arcing
4.2    Wall Surface Cleaning
4.3    Impurities and Dusts
5.    Improvement of First-Wall Material in IR-T1 Tokamak
5.1    High-Z Material
5.2    Investigation WO3 Nano-structure and TiN as First Wall
5.3    Coating  WO3 Nano-structure Using HFCVD Device
5.3.1    Experimental Set-Up
5.3.2    Principle of Operation
5.4    Coating TiN Thin Film Using DC Planner Magnetron Sputtering System
5.4.1    Device Details
5.4.2    Principle of Operation
5.5    Material Analysis
5.5.1    X-Ray Diffraction Analysis
5.5.2    X-Ray Photoelectron  Analysis
5.5.3    Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis
5.5.4    Atomic Force Microscopy Analysis
5.5.5    UV-VIS Spectrophometer
5.6    Result and Discussion
6.    Discussion
References

Rajdeep Singh Rawat received his PhD in Physics from the University of Delhi. He is currently an associate professor of Physics and Deputy Head (Research and Postgraduate Matters) at NSSE/NIE, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. He is also the President of Asian African Association for Plasma Training (AAAPT). He is an experimental plasma physicist with expertise in dense plasma focus (DPF), pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) facilities for fundamental studies on plasma dynamics and radiation/particle emission as well as for wide ranges of applications. He has also worked extensively on a wide variety of applications of these devices, such as high repetition rate portable neutron source, radioisotopes synthesis, soft x-ray lithography, soft and hard x-ray imaging, and pioneered the field of material modification and nano-structured material synthesis using plasma focus devices. He leads the plasma radiation sources lab group at the NTU, secured 28 local/international/industrial research grants, and published over 190 journal papers.